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Urbina Reserva Especial 2001 - Un Gran Vino de la Mejor Añada de La Rioja

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URBINA RESERVA ESPECIAL 2001 - UN GRAN VINO DE LA MEJOR AÑADA DE LA RIOJA

Fuente:Juan Fernández Cuesta (Día 18/09/2015) Diario ABC

La cosecha de 2001 ha sido la mejor de esta D. O., según el crítico de ABC. Y este es uno de sus vinos favoritos. "Urbina Reserva Especial 2001"

Hasta que mi tiempo marchite. Hasta que mi alma se queje. Hasta que mis sentidos se enojen, Urbina Reserva Especial podría ser mi vino. Tinto de tempranillo, de la añada 2001, de Rioja y pongo por plaza Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón. Hasta que se detenga mi corazón. Hasta saciarme de pasión. Hasta dejar de ser yo, Urbina siempre será bandera. Tinto decía, tinto descansado y bendecido por la botella, por una añada que es mi estrella y del que elaboraron más de sesenta mil en esta bodega. Fruta negra y especias en sus aromas que son finura selecta. Y esa finura, tanta frescura y una elegancia plena se vive en la boca, y al final de ella. Hasta la fruta esa, que nunca marchita. Hasta su alma, que nunca se queja. Hasta esos sentidos que desprenden todo el sentimiento y nunca se enojan, todo en este vino recuerda a la tristeza más bella. A esa tristeza, a esa nostalgia por un tiempo perdido y que con Urbina se recupera. Cuando ya no creías encontrar de la añada 2001 nuevos vinos ni afectos, cuando todo en la vida es imperfecto, cuando ya nada es selecto, queda la sensación de un último sorbo eterno.

Lo que hay que saber:

- Puntos: 93.
- Precio: 15-20 euros.
- Añada: 2001.
- Origen: D.O.C. La Rioja.
- Variedad: Tempranillo.
- Bodega: Urbina. Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón (La Rioja).
- Tel: 941 22 42 72.
- Web: www.urbinavinos.com

JUAN FERNÁNDEZ - CUESTA

Juan Fernández Cuesta, autor de la Guía de Vinos del diario Abc, además de gozar de una gran trayectoria como periodista especializado.

Gran defensor de los vinos con terruño, del vino español frente al francés, y de los vinos con una gran relación calidad precio frente a los más caros.

Para este catador especializado, el terruño es la naturaleza que rodea a la uva, como elemento clave a la hora de determinar la calidad del producto final.

"El terruño es la tierra, pero también el clima predominante, la calidad de la vid y la influencia de la mano del hombre, una influencia, eso sí, que debe ser limitada, respetuosa con el fruto y la propia personalidad que la tierra confiere a cada vino".

Sin embargo, tal como señala en el preámbulo de la Guía, la mano del hombre “a veces es muy alargada, demasiado”, de forma que “en España muchos enólogos confunden cuidar, acompañar y vigilar con domesticar y educar como sea a una uva convertida en vino”.

Fernández Cuesta sitúa esta preocupante tendencia en una de las denominaciones de origen españolas con más prestigio, Ribera del Duero, aunque otras regiones no están tampoco exentas: “En Ribera del Duero, por desgracia, hay muchísimo vino domesticado sin necesidad, en Rioja es también una tradición pero afortunadamente están mejorando, mientras que en Cataluña prácticamente esto no ocurre”.

GUÍA DE VINOS ABC 2015

Más de 500 referencias enológicas, de entre 1.500, catadas y puntuadas para ofrecer a sus lectores un manual imprescindible con el que poder nutrir su bodega.

La Guía de Abc incluye medio millar de vinos de menos de 35 euros, ya que está dirigida a todo aquel que quiera comprarse un vino “a buen precio”, si bien apenas hay una decena de elegidos por encima de los 30 euros. Además, el hecho de superar los 30 euros no asegura siempre un lugar preeminente en la parte noble de la Guía.

"Hay vinos cada año mejores" asegura el director de la guía Juan Fernández-Cuesta. Este año, hay un vino que se ha alzado con la máxima puntuación que es el Gran Reserva 904 de la añada 2004 de Rioja Alta que ha obtenido nada menos que 97 puntos. Por detrás están vinos como el 1/VB un vino blanco a partir de uvas de garnacha negra con 96 puntos; asimismo, Teixar de vynes domenech, Finca Comabarra y Numanthia de la denominación de origen Toro han obtenido esos 96 puntos.

Se trata de una guía para todos los públicos, fácil de seguir y de entender y que rápidamente nos da una visión de los mejores vinos por denominación, precio y año. "Es una guía para todo el mundo" explica Fernández-Cuesta porque "no utilizamos lenguaje técnico, lo que pretendemos es que todo el mundo coja una copa de vino y disfrute". Una guía imprescindible para todos los amantes del buen vino que se entrega este viernes con su periódico ABC.

Para cerrar la Guía su autor se ha visto inmerso en la apasionante tarea de catar unos 1.500 vinos en apenas dos meses (octubre y noviembre). Para ello ha distribuido los vinos en sesiones de 10-15 vinos, dando los convenientes descansos al paladar y a la pituitaria, si bien Fernández Cuesta no parece sobrepasado por el esfuerzo, sino muy cómodo con una tarea que, a su juicio, requiere de ciertas cualidades innatas. “Para ser un buen catador de vinos hay que tener unas aptitudes innatas y luego educarse y tratar de aprender muchísimo todos los días; si no quieres aprender no llegarás a ningún sitio”, explica.

Aunque dos de cada tres vinos catados no han tenido cabida finalmente en la Guía (que está disponible actualmente a través de Kiosko y Más y se puede solicitar llamando al diario), Fernández Cuesta considera que, en general, los vinos españoles tienen un buen nivel y, lo que es mejor noticia, están mejorando. “Nos queda que en Ribera del Duero que hagan las cosas mejor, y Rioja está experimentando un cambio absoluto a mejor”.

Sarmientos (Filtro) en la Canilla (Grifo) del Depósito para Vino

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GAVILLA DE SARMIENTOS (FILTRO) QUE PROTEGE LA CANILLA (GRIFO) SITUADO EN EL FONDO DEL DEPÓSITO

Durante los remontados y el descube, para que el grifo o canilla situada en el fondo del depósito para vino no se colmate, se puede utilizar una gavilla de sarmientos (todavía herbáceos y ligeramente verdes), para que hagan de filtro y no salgan los granos o impurezas.


Puntos a tener en cuenta:
- Los sarmientos han de estar frescos, herbáceos o verdes, para que sean más flexibles y también poser evitar los hongos presentes de la madera vieja.
- Que no sean muy largos para que no se separen de la pared del depósito.
- Solo hacen falta dos piedras o gijarros grandes, una en posición horizontal y la otra en posición vertical.


VOCABULARIO DEL VINO

- Colmatación / Colmateo:
Obstrucción de los poros de un filtro, cuando se acumulan los depósitos sólidos.


- Depósito / Tanques: Cualquiera de los grandes contenedores que sirven para almacenar, estabilizar, macerar, homogenizar (tipificación) o fermentar mostos o vinos.

Aunque los hay de madera y cemento, la tendencia más actual es fabricarlos en acero inoxidable, pues son inertes, se limpian fácilmente y permiten un adecuado control de la temperatura.

Pueden ser muy grandes (vinos industriales) o pequeños (elaboraciones de calidad y muy particulares).

Generalmente son cubiertos y los hay auto vaciantes, recubiertos con camisa de frío, troncocónicos, roto fermentadores, etc.


- Gavilla de sarmientos: Una gavilla es un haz de sarmientos.

- Sarmientos: Rama madura de la cepa, después de la sazón y la caída de las hojas.

Al principio del período vegetativo, las ramas largas son todavía herbáceas y verdes, pero a medida que avanza la estación se vuelven más oscuras y quebradizas, madurando y convirtiéndose en sarmientos.

Los sarmientos constituyen la madera del año, a diferencia de las viejas maderas del brazo y del tronco.

Después de la salida de los nuevos brotes se llamará madera de dos años y finalmente madera vieja.

Los sarmientos (o pámpanos, o tallos), son tallos de la vid que se desarrollan de una yema con hojas y/o racimos.


Comienzan como un brote (pámpanos), y si se dejan crecer y madurar, lignifican formando brazos, varas o cordones. Junto con la masa foliar y racimos configuran la copa.

El crecimiento de los sarmientos, que se mide por el vigor de la planta y depende de una gran cantidad de factores ambientales y de cultivo, comienza con el desborre y se desacelera a partir del envero.

Pueden ser productivos (que portan uvas) o no, y darse tanto en la base del tronco (chupones) como en la copa (p.ej. nietos).

El crecimiento vegetativo de los sarmientos compite con la producción de frutos, por lo que son objeto de poda, tanto de invierno como de verano
(p.ej. despuntado) para equilibrar la relación rendimiento, madurez y masa foliar.

Los sarmientos se componen de nudos y entrenudos o meritalos.


Después de la poda, los sarmientos podados a una, dos o tres yemas se llaman pulgares.

Si se dejan más yemas son maderas largas (varas y sarmientos de fruto en España, lattes en Charentes, baguettes en Borgoña, astes en Burdeos).

Sarmiento de fruto: Madera larga, el sarmiento podado sobre más de tres yemas.

Según el color de los sarmientos, el tamaño y grosor de los nudos, las medidas de los entrenudos o el diámetro de la médula, los ampelógrafos pueden identificar ciertas variedades.

Asimismo, también se pueden detectar ciertas enfermedades virales, como el entrenudo corto, observando estos detalles.

En la bodega es importante quitar los trozos de sarmientos que entran con las uvas en la bodega, por despalillado y el desfangado para impedir la formación de taninos verdes, cuya aparición es menos grave en la elaboración de vinos tintos, aunque muy importante en la de blancos.


- Canilla / Grifo / Llave de paso / Espita / Válvula: Grifo, conducto o cañería de los depósitos de fermentación que permite regular y dar salida al vino. También se dice al tapón troncónico (bitoque) de madera o de materia sintética que obtura el orificio de las barricas.

La canilla era elemento importante de las cubas de madera primero y de las de hormigón después. Era la llave o espita que servía para regular la salida del vino de la cuba.

Colocar la canilla exigía cierta maña. Primero, antes de llenar la cuba, había que taponar el orificio de salida, llamado canillero, por el interior de la misma.

Cuando se quería sacar el vino, con un golpe certero se introducía la canilla que desplazaba el tapón, liberando así la salida, que ahora quedaba controlada por el fiel de la canilla. El fiel era el dispositivo de la canilla que permitía abrirla y cerrarla a voluntad.

La canilla se colocaba en la parte baja de la cuba, nunca en el fondo, pues había que dejar espacio para que los sedimentos que se depositaban en el.


Se excavaba una especie de pileta en el suelo de la bodega, que era por lo general de tierra, al pie de la canilla para colocar en él la cántara de vino o cualquier otro recipiente que se quisiera llenar.

Este espacio cavado se llamaba torco. También recibía este nombre el pequeño foso en el que escurría el vino de la prensa o de los lagos o lagares.

El nombre de canilla procede del disminutivo de caña.

Lo cual nos permite pensar que inicialmente se utilizaría como canilla una caña pequeña, que al estar hueca permitiría la salida del vio de la cuba.

Canilla es una voz típicamente riojana, aunque también se puede escuchar en las zonas tradicionalmente vitícolas de Castilla y León y en Jerez.

Una expresión muy habitual es "dar canilla", para referirse a dar suelta e ir sacando poco a poco el vino de la cuba.


El canillero, además del orificio, como antes hemos anotado, en Rioja Baja era la forma de llamar a la misma llave o espita.

También el canillero era el artesano que hacía el orificio y colocaba la canilla.

Como en la mayoría de los pueblos riojanos se conoció antes la canilla de la cuba que el grifo, que llegó con el agua corriente, el segundo de ellos se identificó con el primero y tomó su nombre.

Es frecuente llamar en La Rioja canilla al grifo.

Se puede escuchar construcciones como "cierra la canilla" en lugar de "cierra el grifo".

En la ribera navarra, así como en ciertas zonas de Aragón, se da este mismo fenómeno.


- Remontados: La operación de remontado consiste en extraer el mosto-vino en fermentación por una válvula lateral inferior del depósito, para ser impulsado por medio de una bomba hacia la parte superior del mismo.

Los fines del remontado son:

- Mantener el sombrero húmedo para evitar el desarrollo en su superficie de bacterias y mohos.

- Los hollejos que forman el sombrero pueden alcanzar altas temperaturas (hasta 20 ºC por encima de la temperatura de fermentación), por lo que el remontado actúa como refrescante, evitando el desarrollo de bacterias termófilas.

- Al aplicar el remontado se extraen las sustancias contenidas en los hollejos: color, aroma y taninos.

- Aireación del mosto o la vendimia en fermentación especialmente durante los primeros días para conseguir una mayor población de levaduras, que aseguren un correcto desarrollo de la misma; Así como asegurar el correcto metabolismo de las levaduras, que pueden afectar a buen funcionamiento de las células; Como la síntesis de esteroles y ácidos grasos insaturados que aumentan la permeabilidad de las membranas celulares, y que frecuentemente son causa de paradas de la fermentación.

- Homogenización del mosto o la vendimia encubada, así como también en vinos terminados.

- Mezcla de aditivos con el mosto o la vendimia en fermentación, o también con los vinos elaborados.

- Descubado / Descube: Operación que consiste en vaciar el vindo del depósito tras la fermentación alcohólica, mediante trasiego del vino a otro depósito o barricas, para separarlo de los orujos o pieles.


El descube de la vendimia es independiente de la fermentación alcohólica, teniendo más bien que ver con el proceso de maceración deseado, determinándose el tiempo de encubado en función del tipo de vino a elaborar y de lo que permita la calidad de la vendimia tinta elaborada:

- En los vinos blancos que fermentan en barrica, esta operación significa la separación de las lías.

- En el caso de los vinos rosados y tintos, el descubado implica el fin del contacto del vino con los hollejos.

- Cuando el descube se realiza justo al finalizar la fermentación se llama descube en caliente, a diferencia del que se realiza cuando ya han acabado la fermentación y la maceración, que se llama descube en frío.

- En los vinos semisecos o dulces se realiza el descube cuando todavía quedan azúcares residuales, después de apagar los mostos.

En la elaboración de vinos tintos el descube es la operación de vaciado del depósito que contiene la vendimia fermentada, pudiendo hacerse de dos formas:

- Escurriendo o sangrando el vino por las válvulas laterales o de fondo, y a continuación sacando los orujos con destino a su prensado para terminar de extraer el vino que contienen.

- Homogenizando mediante un activo remontado el sombrero con el vino elaborado, descubando el conjunto obtenido por medio de una bomba, separándose a continuación el vino de los hollejos mediante un sistema de escurrido y prensado.

Controles de Madurez Fenolica para Uvas y Vino - Método Cromoenos

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CONTROLES DE MADUREZ FENOLICA PARA UVAS Y VINO - MÉTODO CROMOENOS

- Índice Madurez Fenólica (IMF):
Mediante esta medición, podemos conocer el valor a partir del cual la uva está muy próxima a alcanzar el máximo valor de Color Probable, y donde la astringencia y el verdor de los taninos de la piel se aproxima al valor mínimo.

Ejemplo: Estamos cerca (IMF < 1,6), o estamos lejos ( IMF > 2). Permitiendo preveer con más precision la fecha de la vendimia.

- IMF  1,4 = El IMF Cromoenos tiene en cuenta la DO280 de las pepitas. Aunque las pepitas sean verdes si el IMF = 1,5 la uva etá madura y se puede vendimiar tranquilamente. 

Ejemplo: Si hacemos una maceración de 10 días los vinos obtenidos serán suaves, o se podrán suavizar facilmente con microxigenación. Cuando la maceración sea de 30 días es necesario el IMF sea < 1,4.

- IMF < 1,5  = La uva alcanza el estado optimo de madurez fenólica. El máximo valor de color probables y donde la astringencia y verdor de los taninos de la piel se aproxima al valor mínimo.

Este el primer dato determinante para fijar la fecha de comienzo de la vendimia. Es decir hay que esperar a alcanzar este valor para evitar vinos que si bien pueden ser muy coloreados puedan ser astringentes y con taninos muy verdes.

En la elaboración podemos efectuar maceraciones largas para extraer taninos de calidad.

Con IMF próximos a 1,5, también aumentan los contenidos en precursores aromáticos, las lactonas, los esteres ramificados (frutas rojas), y los esteres varietales.

Ejemplo: CP no son muy altos, IPT < 45 bajos, y IMF < 1,5. En este caso hemos alcanzado un punto en el que la uva no mejorara, pero no tenemos mucho color y los polifenoles totales son bajos. Dadas las circunstancias deberíamos sangrar el mosto para concentrar los taninos suaves y destinar el resto, por ejemplo para la elaboración de vinos rosados.

- IMF < 1,6 = Los tonos verdes desaparecen. Los taninos son menos verdes y astringentes y más dulces y grasos.

Ejemplo: Con IMF por debajo de 1,70 y por encima de 1,50, con maceraciones frías, obtenemos vinos suaves y con mucha fruta, y con IMF de 1,50 obtenemos vinos para guarda, pero con fruta más madura.

- IMF< 1,70= Se pierde el olor verde herbáceo, y se está cerca de alcanzar los puntos máximo de cata de fruta fresca, que se correlaciona con: Contenidos intermedios de 4-metil-4-mercapto-2-pentanona (4MMP), 3-mercaptohexanol, y con un contenido máximo en acetato de 3-mercaptohexilo, además de coincidir con el punto en el que se alcanza el máximo contenido en esteres mayoritarios. 

En tempranillo con IMF 1,65 obtención de fruta fresca.

Ejemplo: Para vinos tintos con mucha fruta se puede empezar con un IMF <  1,7 (simpre que CP > 8 e IPT > 45), y hacer una Maceración Fría, ó Maceración Caliente (55ºC) de 10 a 12 hr, ó Maceración Corta Normal (25ºC/20ºC). 

Ejemplo: También se puede recurrir a la mezcla de vinos vinificados con vendimia IMF de <  1,7 y otra parte procedente de la vinificación deuvas vendimiadas con IMF de 1,5.

- IMF > 1,7
= Si vendimiamos perdemos color probable y nos encontramos con unos taninos verdes y astringentes.

Para evitar la extracción de taninos verdes astringentes en la elaboración del vino deberíamos efectuar: Maceración fría, o maceración a 78ºC, o maceración corta y tener previsto un programa de microxigenación, que combine los taninos verdes a los antocianos.

Los taninos que son astringentes cuando se combinan con los antocianos se suavizan. Taninos (Astringentes) y Antocianos (Suaves). Durante la microxigenación o la crianza sucede una transformación, por la cual los núcleos de orto-fenoles de las procianidinas pasan a prodelfinidinas (tres grupos fenol) que son más suaves.

Ejemplo: Si una uva tine 12 puntos de CP, 13%Vol DAP, 1000 mg/L At pero un IMF de 1,7, si la vendimiamos los taninos están verdes y astringentes.

12 CP y 1,70 IMF. Aunque ya tiene buen color puede seguir aumentando el color hasta alcanzar IMF 1,5, donde conseguiríamos taninos más suaves.

La uva puede permanecer en la viña, porque puede aumentar todavía su color hasta un IMF de 1,5 (CP 17,5), y la uva puede madurar los taninos.

Si vendimiamos con un IMF de 1,7, vamos a perder color y calidad, porque el vino que resultará será más verde y astringente.

Por lo tanto, este IMF es crucial para definir la fecha del inicio de la vendimia.

- IMF > 2,0 = Inmaduras, bloqueo de maduración por estrés.

- IMF > 2,5 = Pasificadas, infectadas de polilla

- IMF 3,5
= Uvas alteradas y pasificadas. Color Probable (CP) muy alto y taninos verdes.


COMPUESTOS FENÓLICOS (POLIFENOLES - FENOLES)

Los consituyentes fenólicos revisten una gran importancia en enología debido al papel que juegan directamente o indirectamente sobre la calidad de los vinos.

En efecto, son el origen del color y de la astringencia, siendo atribuida esta última en particular a la presencia de taninos.

Un conocimiento profundo de las diversas estructuras polifenólicas presentes en la uva y de los mecanismos de su evolución durante el transcurso de la vinificación es una base indispensable en la evaluación de su papel en enología y en el desarrollo de los procesos tecnológicos adaptados a la vez a la materia prima y al tipo de producto deseado.


Son sustancias muy reactivas, compuestas por más de un grupo fenol (anillo de benceno con un grupo hidróxido -OH-) por molécula, que se encuentran en partes de la vid y sus frutos.

Se dividen generlamente en flavonoides (flavonoles, antocianos, etc.), taninos (hidrolizables y condensados) y ligninas (ej: algunos éteres).

Su generación en la planta y los frutos depende de múltiples factores (clima, temperatura, insolación, bajo contenido de nitrógeno en el suelo, etc.) y cumplen diversas funciones protectoras y regeneradoras (antioxidantes, antisépticas, contra agresiones de insectos, reconocimiento para la polinización etc).

Son complejos y están constituidos por centenares de moléculas distintas, que pasan al vino durante la elaboración, siendo determinantes para establecer su calidad.

Las moléculas fenólicas tienen gran capacidad de reacción y combinan con ácidos, azúcares y también entre ellas mismas, para formar coloides y polímeros de cadenas largas que generan importantes compuestos sápidos y aromáticos, además de influir enormemente en el color del vino.

La madurez fenólica no suele coincidir con la madurez industrial, y las deficiencias de la primera son más difíciles de correguir que las de la segunda. Incluso la formación de antocianos y taninos no necesariamente va pareja durante la maduración.

Los hollejos (pieles) y pepitas son las partes con concentraciones máximas en polifenoles, aunque también los hay en la pulpa y en el escobajo.

Si los contenidos en azúcares y ácidos de la uva tienen una consecuencia directa en el vino, esto no está tan claro en los polifenoles (ej: contenido de antocianos de la uva e intensidad colorante, relación muy influenciada por la exposición del vino al oxígeno).

El grado de condensación de los polifenoles condiciona las propiedades organolépticas del vino y depende esencialmente de los niveles de extracción, envejecimiento y oxidación.

En concentraciones grandes, se hacen insolubles y precipitan, formando parte de los posos.

Indice Polifenoles Totales (IPT)

- Absorbancia longitud de Onda 280 nm (> de 50, está muy bien).
- Vino diluido 100 veces en cubeta cuarzo 1cm espesor.

- Cantidad de polifenoles existentes.
- Absorbancia de todos sus componentes: Ácidos genólicos, esteres, flavonoles, antocianos, procianidinas, oligómeros, antocianos-taninos poco condensados y muy condensados, taninos muy condensados, polisacáridos combinados con polifenoles.

- Alto valor IPT = Garantía de envejecer bien, cuerpo, suavidad, conservar aromas más los que puedan liberar, propiedades antioxidantes. 


Relación entre Índice da Madurez Fenólica y Astringencia

Un vino es astringente cuando deja una sensación de sequedad y amargor en la boca debido a una alta concentración de taninos que no se han integrado todavía.

Durante la maduración de la uva se comprueba que conforme el verdor y la astringencia de los taninos disminuye, el IMF también disminuye.

Y en los vinos se obtiene la misma correlación, los procedentes de uvas con valores IMF bajos, son los más suaves.

IMF > 1,7 = Verdes y astringentes

1,7 > IMF > 1,6 = Astringencia media

1,6 > IMF > 1,5 = Maduro, suave

IMF > 2,0 = Inmaduras, bloqueo de maduración por estrés.

IMF > 2,5 = Pasificadas, infectadas de polilla


Cuando el IMF disminuye, también se reduce la astringencia

El grado de polimerización de los antocianos aumenta la d520 y es por lo que el IMF se reduce.

La carga positiva de la molécula del antociano está deslocalizada (Antocianos Polimerizados - Taninos Condensados).

- Con la polimerización de las procianidinas aumenta la astringencia.

- Cuando las procianidinas plimerizan con los antocianos, su astringencia disminuye. Durante la micro-ocigenación, las procianidinas se combinan con los antocianos y la astringencia disminuye.


Existe una Correlación entre el Indice de Madurez Fenólica y el Perfil Aromático:

Correlación con los mercaptanos polifuncionales (4MMP, AMOH, MOH), ésteres mayoritarios y lactonas.

Con IMF< 1,70 Se pierde el olor verde herbáceo, y se está cerca de alcanzar los puntos máximo de cata de fruta fresca, que se correlaciona con: Contenidos intermedios de 4-metil-4-mercapto-2-pentanona (4MMP), 3-mercaptohexanol, y con un contenido máximo en acetato de 3-mercaptohexilo, además de coincidir con el punto en el que se alcanza el máximo contenido en esteres mayoritarios. 

Componentes aromáticos, de gran relevancia en perfil aromático relativo a fruta fresca como son los mercaptanos polifuncionales: 4-metil-4-mercapto-2-pentanona(4MMP) (Típica de la variedad Sauvignon, olor a guayaba); 3-mercaptohexanol (Notas florales y dulces producidas por altos contenidos en linalool así como por la ausencia de acetato de 3-mercaptohexilo); y acetato de 3-mercaptohexilo(3MHA) (Característico perfil aromático del Verdejo, cuyo aroma recuerda al mango, la papaya, el boj, y fruta de la pasión).

Con IMF próximos a 1,5, aumentan los contenidos en precursores aromáticos, las lactonas, los esteres ramificados (frutas rojas), y los esteres varietales.

 
- Mercaptanos (o Tioles): En el vino son causados por compuestos volátiles azufrados generados durante la fermentación y que dan hedores a ajo, caucho, cebolla, espárragos, coliflores o auga estancada. Dependiendo de la concentración pueden ser eliminados por aireación.

En química orgánica, un mercaptano o tiol es un compuesto que contiene el grupo funcional formado por un átomo de azufre y un átomo de hidrógeno (-SH). Siendo el azufre análogo de un grupo alcohol (-OH), este grupo funcional es llamado grupo tiol o grupo sulfhidrilo. Tradicionalmente los tioles son denominados mercaptanos. El término mercaptano viene del latín mercurius captans, que significa "capturado por mercurio", debido a que el grupo –SH se une fuertemente al elemento mercurio. 

Muchos tioles son líquidos incoloros que tienen un olor parecido al del ajo, cebolla, o gas natural. El olor de tioles es a menudo fuerte y repulsivo, en particular los de bajo peso molecular.

El compuesto responsable de estos olores es el etanotiol y su umbral de detección en el ser humano se de 1,1 µg/L El etanotiol en los vinos es el resultado de la reactividad del H2S (Sulfidrico) con el etanol: Etanol + H2S (Sulfidrico) = Etanotiol (olor a cebolla) .

Fundamentalmente, la aparición de tioles está ligada a un trabajo del vino sin contacto suficiente con el aire. Los vinos privados de aire y oxigeno, o sometidos a una influencia reductora, huelen a reducidos, cerrados o encerrados. Para el químico la reducción, se trata de un fenómeno inverso a la oxidación. 


Los tioles son también responsables de una clase de fallos en los vinos causados por la reacción no deseada entre el azufre y la levadura. 

Sin embargo, no todos los tioles tienen olores desagradables. Por ejemplo, los mercaptanos del pomelo son un tiol monoterpenoide responsables del aroma característico de este.

Algunos mercaptanos en concentraciones muy pequeñas cómo el mecapthohexanol son responsables de aromas ahumados y frutales, por lo que otorgan complejidad a los vinos. 


- Lactona: (gamma-Butyrolactona, γ-butyrolactona o GBL), aportan aromas a caramelo, dulzón y coco.
Una lactona es un compuesto orgánico del tipo éster cíclico. Se forma como producto de la condensación de un grupo alcohol con un grupo ácido carboxílico en una misma molécula. Las estructuras más estables de las lactonas son los miembros con 5 anillos (gama-lactonas) y los de 6 anillos (los delta-lactonas).

- Esteres ramificados (frutas rojas), y los esteres varietales: Un ester es un cuerpo químico que resulta de la combinación entre un ácido y un alcohol.

Los ésteres son más aromáticos que los alcoholes, ácidos y aldehídos.

Durante la fermentación, las levaduras producen ésteres afrutados (ésteres de cadena corta) y otros más pesados (ésteres de cadena larga). Los ésteres de cadena corta se  producen sobre todo en las fermentaciones a baja temperatura. Así es como se expresan también los más delicados aromas varietales de algunos vinos terpénicos (riesling, gewuztraminer) o aftutados (chardonnay).

Los ésteres de los ácidos volátiles tienen agradable olor y son responsables de algunos delicados aromas (plátano, frambuesa, manzana) que se detectan en los vinos afrutados. También pueden ir unidos a ciertas alteraciones, como el acetato de etilo en el caso de vinos aquejados de acescencia. El éster acético se forma al reaccionar el ácido acético con el etanol.

Los ésteres etílicos del ácido tartárico se forman durante el envejecimiento y crianza, pero apenas contribuyen al aroma del vino.
Perfil aromático (Hérbaceo, Fruta Fresca, Fruta Madura)

Para vinos tintos con mucha fruta se puede empezar con un IMF <  1,7 (simpre que CP > 8 e IPT > 45), y hacer una Maceración Fría, ó Maceración Caliente (55ºC) de 10 a 12 hr, ó Maceración Corta Normal (25ºC/20ºC).

También se puede recurrir a la mezcla de vinos vinificados con vendimia IMF de <  1,7 y otra parte procedente de la vinificación deuvas vendimiadas con IMF de 1,5.


- Color Probable (CP): Predice la Intensidad de Color máxima del vino tinto obtenido, después de haber sufrido las caídas de color normales previas a su embotellado como son las originadas por la fermentación maloláctica, la estabilización por frío, y ajuste de sulfuroso.

La predicción del color es una gran herramienta, para valorar las uvas, para seguir la maduración, para visualizar la uva que entra en bodega, y poder elegir el protocolo de vinificación más adecuado.

Pero también hay que tener en cuenta que el color es un parámetro incompleto porque puede haber uvas con mucho color, y sin embargo elaboramos el vino, y obtenemos vinos astringentes. De aquí surge la necesidad, de saber cuando vendimiar con el máximo de color y la menor astringencia. Calidad de los Taninos: Vegetales, astringentes o suaves y dulzones.

CPFA = Color Probable Después de la Fermentación Alcohólica. Si recibe una microxigenación adecuada, podemos evitar una pequeña parte de pérdida de color.

Los antocianos y taninos reaccionan con el acetaldehído al microxigenar, formando compuestos tanino-antociano más estables frente a los cambios de pH y sulfuroso.

Se forman compuestos de adición con los polisacáridos excretados pro la levadura, que forman compuestos envolventes protectores de moléculas de antocianos y combinaciones.

CPFMA = Color Probable Después de la fermentación Maloláctica.

CPE = Color estable o valor mínimo que se puede obtener después de la elaboración y estabilización del vino: Tratamiento con frío -5º; Corregido Sulfuroso (3gr/Hl); y Ajuste de pH 3,5.

CP y IPT P: Son el color y los IPT probables del vino después del tratamiento por frío, ajustado a pH 3,50 y adicionado de 30 mg/L de SO2



Ratio DO280/DO520 Indice de Madurez Fénolica (IMF) Disminuye a Medida que las Uvas Maduran


Durante la maduración de las uvas, la fracción antocianos polimerizados a los polisacáridos (TP) disminuye, y aumenta la fracción App.

Durante la maduración fénolica se produce la hidrólisis de los enlaces entre los polisacaridos y los antocianos. Fenómeno ligado a la extrabilidad del Dr Glories.

La fracción TP (polísacaridos - antocianos) es insoluble en alcohol, y precipita al final de la fermentación alcoholica. Durante la maduración de las uvas, los antocianos son liberados en el mosto, se combinan con los taninos aumentando su estabilidad en el vino. Y por lo tanto la Intensidad Colorante del vino es superior, y no hay caída de color.


Valores del Método Dr. Glories (Antocianos pH1 totales - Antocianos Extraibles pH 3,20)

En lo que concierne al valor de los taninos, su valor se corresponde a los taninos totales extraidos a pH1. Estos valores no se corresponden con los valores del metodo de Glories, que mide la DO280 del extracto a pH 3,20.

Los valores de los taninos totales a pH1, son los valores de los taninos potenciales que existen en la uva. Y que dan una orientación al enologo, de su cocentración para añadir taninos enologicos para reforzar el mosto.


Este método aporta:
- Cantidad total de polifenoles.
- Cantidad total de antocianos.
- Cantidad de antocianos extraíbles.
- Cantidad de taninos que aporta el hollejo.
- Cantidad de taninos que aportan las pepitas.

El concepto en el método de Glories es la Extractibilidad de los antocianos que es la facilidad con la que los antocianos se extraen en el vino. Viene determinado por la degradación de las células del hollejo.

Para tener un vino con mucho color no sólo tienen que tener color las uvas, sino que lo tienen que soltar.

También mide la madurez de las pepitas (aporte de taninos) que es lo último en madurar.

El método tiene limitaciones: el muestreo es limitado y hay que hacerlo siempre igual por lo que va encaminado a bodegas con un volumen pequeño de vino.

El método se utiliza para comparar variedades y ver si se adaptan al terreno, para comparar añadas a nivel polifenólico y sobre todo para unificar criterios.

Según Glories, una vendimia se considera que tiene uva óptima a nivel polifenólico cuando tiene hollejos ricos en antocianos y taninos que además son fácilmente extraíbles y unas pepitas pobres en antocianos.

Ej. de uva buena: IPT alto – muchos taninos de los hollejos - IC alto – hollejos ricos en antocianos y fácilmente extraíbles.

Muestreo: Muy importante. Se cogen 400 bayas procurando que pesen lo mismo. Con 200 bayas se hace la madurez tecnológica y con el mosto se mide la densidad. Con las otras 200 bayas la madurez fenólica.

Medidas con el espectrofotómetro:
- Antocianos a pH=1 (Ant pH1): potencial total de antocianos de la uva.
- Antocianos a pH=3,2 (Ant pH3,2): antocianos en el vino.
- A280 disolución pH3,2:  IPT del vino.




Frente a la degustación de las uvas
Requiere personal cualificado y entrenado.
Es un método subjetivo.
Se parte de un número de bayas por muestra poco representativo de la viña.
Los datos son difíciles de registrar, y de cuantificar.

Características externas que indican que una uva esta madura:
- El racimo pierde rigidez y cuelga.
- Consistencia de los granos (están blandos).
- El raspón se empieza a maderizar y a poner rojo.
- Los granos se desprenden con facilidad y el pedicelo (rabito del grano) se lleva el pincel.
- La coloración del pincel (parte de pulpa que queda aderida al racimo al desprender los granos del racimo).
- El mosto está viscoso y pegajoso.
- El sabor es azucarado y agradable.
- Las pepitas se desprenden fácilmente del hollejo.
- Las pepitas a nivel de color y cata al principio tienen tonos verdosos amarillentos y cuando están maduras cogen tonos marrones tostados.

En 7 minutos, con el método Cromoenos se puede coner:
- La Intensidad de Color del vino obtenido con las uvas.

- La calidad de los taninos: si son vegetales, astringentes, o suaves y dulzones. 
- El perfil aromatico del vino: herbaceo, fruta fresca, o fruta madura. 
- La información procede de una muestra muy amplia del viñedo desde 300 a 1000 granos de muestra. 
- Los resultados son numéricos, y se pueden reistrar, para cuantificar, valorar, y hacer históricos comparables año tras año. 
- Se realiza con material de laboratorio habitual, y equipos económicos. 
- No se precisa paersonal cualificado.


Bloqueos Maduración Fenólica: Riego mediante el control de IMF, hasta reiniciar la maduración:

Riego Deficitario Controlado de la Vid 

El riego debe usarse como medida de disminución del estrés, siempre conservando un cierto déficit hídrico, sobre todo en el proceso final de maduración. El motivo es equilibrar el proceso de madurción para el optimo desarrollo de los polifenoles.




La respuesta directa de cualquier cultivo a la falta de agua puede ser una disminución de su rendimiento o, incluso, una peor calidad de la cosecha. Ahora bien, dependiendo de en qué etapa del desarrollo del cultivo se produzca el estrés hídrico los resultados serán distintos. Es necesario conocer estas etapas de máxima sensibilidad a la hora de planificar el riego.

El agua se ha de aplicar, en los momentos fisiológicos críticos en que la planta crece y se desarrolla. El riego no debe llevar a aumentos sifinificativamente importantes de rendimientos que irán en detrimento de la calidad, ya que no debe incidir en disminución del grado alcohólico, ni de los polifenoles en variedades tintas.


Capacidad del suelo para resistir el estrés hidrico

El suelo es un entramado de partículas minerales que no forman una masa compacta, sino que entre ellas existe una intrincada red de poros y canales por los que circula el aire y el agua.

- El tamaño de los poros condiciona los intercambios hídricos, gaseosos y la accesibilidad de las raíces y
organismos edáficos a estos recursos. Por ejemplo:

- Los poros mayores de 30 micras son incapaces de retener el agua de forma prolongada, siendo los responsables del drenaje rápido y la aireación tras un episodio de saturación.

- Los poros entre 0,2 y 30 micras son capaces de retener el agua durante cierto tiempo y de cederlo a las raíces, por lo que determinan la capacidad de un suelo para almacenar el agua disponible para las plantas.

- El agua contenido en poros menores de 0,2 micras queda fuera del alcance de las raíces y de la mayor parte de los organismos vivos.

La capacidad de retener agua en el suelo dependerá de su textura (proporción de arena, limo y arcilla) y de su estructura (forma en la que las partículas del suelo se unen formando agregados y creando diferentes tipos de poros). Para la actividad agrícola el suelo ideal es el franco (30-50% de arena; 30-50% de limo y 20-30% de arcilla). Este suelo es capaz de almacenar unos 300 litros de agua por metro de profundidad, aunque no todo esta agua está enteramente disponible para las plantas. 



- Potencial del agua en el suelo: Cada gota de agua situada en un poro cualquiera del suelo está sometida a distintas fuerzas que determinarán su evolución.

Sobre una gota de agua actuarían las siguientes fuerzas:
- La fuerza de la gravedad: Potencial gravitacional
- La fuerza debida a la presencia de sales: Potencial osmótico
- La fuerza debida al peso de otras gotas de agua: Potencial de presión.
- La fuerza debida a la interacción entre las cargas eléctricas de las arcillas y sustancias húmicas con la polaridad de las moléculas de agua: Potencial matrícial.

A efectos prácticos la conclusión sería que para poder extraer agua del suelo es necesario contrarrestar todas estas fuerzas, debiéndose realizar una presión de sución, cuyo valor habría de igualar el balance de todos las fuerzas enumeradas anteriormente, por simplicidad se denomina potencial hídrico del suelo o tensión de humedad.

El potencial hídrico, y por tanto el esfuerzo que deben realizar las plantas para extraer agua del suelo, no es lineal, sino que aumenta a medida que el contenido de agua de los poros va disminuyendo. Esto significa que para minimizar el gasto energético de las plantas en la absorción de agua, maximizando por tanto la producción, lo ideal sería planificar el riego para que el contenido de agua del suelo se mantuviera siempre en valores altos, pero sin saturarlo durante periodos prolongados.


- Estados del agua en el suelo: Del volumen total de agua que puede almacenar un suelo, no todo está disponible para las plantas y, del que está disponible, no todo se puede absorber con igual facilidad.

- Capacidad de campo: Es el volumen de agua que un suelo puede retener después de saturarlo (encharcarlo) y dejarlo drenar (escurrir) libremente durante 48 horas. La capacidad de campo viene a reflejar el agua que el suelo almacena en los poros y canales pequeños, después de que los más grandes se hayan llenado de aire. Cuando un suelo está a capacidad de campo la presión necesaria para comenzar a extraer el agua retenida es baja, de menos de 0,3 atmósferas.

- Punto de marchitez permanente: Es el contenido de agua de un suelo a partir del cual las plantas no pueden extraer más y, por tanto, se marchitan y mueren. En este punto la presión necesaria para comenzar a extraer el agua que todavía contiene el suelo es de 15 atmósferas. De forma general, el punto de marchitez es igual al 56% de la capacidad de campo.

- Agua útil para las plantas: Diferencia entre capacidad de campo y el punto de marchitez.

- Agua fácilmente utilizable por las plantas: Parte del agua útil que las plantas pueden absorber con poco esfuerzo (0,5-1 atmósferas) y por tanto sin merma de su capacidad productiva. El agua fácilmente utilizable depende de cada especie de planta, pero se considera, de forma orientativa, que para los cultivos menos sensibles a la sequía el agua fácilmente utilizable es el 50% del agua útil y para los más sensibles entre 25-30%.

El contenido de agua de un suelo puede expresarse de diversas formas, habitualmente se utiliza el porcentaje respecto al peso o al volumen, pero a efectos prácticos quizás lo más intuitivo sea asimilar el porcentaje volumétrico a litros/m2 y metro de profundidad del suelo (mm/m ócm/m).

A la vista de lo anterior es importante señalar que la capacidad de retención de agua de un suelo es limitada. Cuando se supera se dan fenómenos de escorrentía (circulación en superficie del agua sobrante) o percolación (pérdida del agua sobrante hacia horizontes profundos del suelo). A la hora de programar el riego hay que conocer la velocidad con la que el agua se infiltra en el terreno, esto es los litros por metro cuadrado que puede absorber un suelo en una hora, para evitar fenómenos de escorrentía.


Materiales Necesarios

1.- Triturador tipo Thermomix
2.- Termoextractor Cromoenos
3.- Centrifuga de 13.400 rpm
4.- Fotometro UV 280
5.- Fotómetro Visible 340.420.520,620,750
6.- Micropietas de 10 a 100 mL, de 500 a 5000 mL
7.- Cubetas de PMMA de 1,5 mL 10 mm de paso
8.- Tubos eppendorf de 1,5 mL
9.- Kit de reactivos Cromoenos
10.- Pincho saca muestras Cromoenos



Pasos a seguir


0. Preparar baño termostático: Se rellena de agua destilada hassta que cubra las resistencias. Cuando se realizen muchos análisis comprobar pérdidas por evaporación.

1. Se toman las uvas y se introducen en la Termomix. En control de maduración se llena para cubrir las aspas, aproximadamente con 300 gramos puede valer. Pero cuanta más muestra mejor. También hay que prever unos 100 gramos más para hacer el Grado Probable, pH y acidez total.

 2. Para obtener el extracto de las uvas, se utiliza la Thermomix o un blender. Es una batidora que además permite calentar la muestra. Las condiciones de trabajo con la Termomix son las siguientes:

- Tiempo de trituración: De 1 min a 1,5 min. Siempre que se obtenga una mermelada homogenea.

- Velocidad de las cuchillas: Posición 7 a 8. Se inicia a 2.000 rpm, se pasa a 7.000 rpm en 20 sg y se deja a 3.000 rpm. Tiene que quedar como una mermelada.

- : 80ºC. Con la termomix el proceso de alcanzar 78ºC de Tª cuesta 0,5 min en vez de 1 min.

3. Se toma el vaso de acero inoxidable y se coloca en el fondo el imán circular, se coloca del lado liso, de tal manera que lo que se vea en el fondo sean las aspas del agitador. También se coloca en el vaso la pieza metálica indicadora del nivel. El Volumen de pasta triturada a procesar es de 100 mL.

4. Seguidamente se añaden los 100 ml del extracto. Se va rellenando el vaso de acero inoxidable (sin quitar el agitador del fondo) con el extracto hasta que el nivel del liquido llegue a la pestaña de la pieza metálica utilizada como "inidicador de nivel". Con esto se tienen los 100 ml de extracto.

5. Se conecta el agitador hasta aproximadamente 40 a 50% Y una vez que este agitando se añaden 4 mL de reactivo B, y a los 5 segundos 1 mL de reactivo A.

6. Se coloca el tape del vaso con la sonda. Las condiciones de la digestión son que una vez que alcanza la temperatura de 78ºC permanece en ella durante un minuto. El baño ya se encuentra programado con estas condiciones por lo que no hay que tocar nada. Se espera hasta que avise con un pitido que indica que la digestión durante 1 minuto ha terminado.

7. Inmediatamente después de la digestión del extracto, se tomará la muestra del vaso. Para tomar la muestra limpia, se coloca en la punta de la micropipeta de 5 ml un filtro de rejilla metálica. Se introduce la punta con el filtro en el extracto y se comienza a aspirar con cuidado. Se toman unos 3 ml para repartir 0,5 ml en dos eppendorf de 1.5 ml. de volumen total.

8. Para continuar con la limpieza de la muestra, se coloca el eppendorf en la centrifugadora. Las condiciones de centrifugado son las siguientes:

- Tiempo de centrifugación: 2 min

- Revoluciones: 14.500 r.p.m.

9. En un tubo de ensayo, se diluye la muestra 1/100 con HCL 2% (2 mL de HCI 37,5% en 100 ml de agua destilada):

- HCL 2%: 3960 µL

- Muestra centrifugada: 40 µL

10. Ya solo queda tomar la medida de absorbancia de la muestra en el espectrofotómetro. Se utilizarán cubetas de plástico PMMA (BRAND 759115 de 1,5 mL) de 1 cm. La medida de absorbancia se tomarán para las longitudes de onda de 280 nm y 520 nm. Antes de tomar la medida será necesario "hacer el cero" a estas longitudes de onda utilizando el HCL 2%. Una vez hecho, se dejará la cubeta de HCL 2% en la posición de referencia.

El resultado obtenido se multiplicará por 100 para corregir la dilución. Si los valores obtenidos están en las uvas algo inmaduras por debajo de los valores mínimos de d280, d520,% Vol, o PH el software avisa y no deja calcular. Si es solamente un parámetro, se puede introducir el valor mínimo, y se obtiene un valor orientativo. Si los valores de d280 y d520 se salen de rango, se gira la cubeta 90º y se mide por el recorrido de 5 mm, el resultado se multiplica por dos (En 15 años he visto 5 casos solamente).

- Máximo: 300(D280); 175(D520); 17(%Vol); 4,2(pH); 9(aT)
- Mínimo: 70(D280); 20(D520); 10(%Vol); 2,7(pH); 2,5(aT)

Calibración General

Cuando la variedad a medir no está en el desplegable, quiere decir que no tiene el calibrado personalizado. Para ello hay que hacer una segunda dilución con el Tampón RC de 1/20, es decir:

- 100 µL de extracto centrifugado
- 1900 µL de tampón RC

Se miden las absorbacias frente al Tampón RC a 420, 520, y 620 nm, el resultado se multiplica por 20. Y estos valores junto con los de las absorbacias a 280 y 520 nm de la dilución en HCL 2% se introducen el software de cálculo.

Software Cromoenos

lª. Con la contraseña recibida desde cromoenos@cromoenos.com. y el mail del usuario, en la opción Test de Color de www.bioenos.com. se rellenan las casillas que aparecen en la página de Test Color, y se accede a la página de introducción de datos. Aparece tipo de variedad: por defecto General (para el caso de que la variedad a analizar no esté calibrada), y si la variedad está calibrada se abre el desplegable y se selecciona.

2ª. En la segunda línea a rellenar aparece tipo de test: UV-Visible, o M3000, hay que seleccionar UV-VISIBLE.

Introducción de datos:

lª. Variedad calibrada: pH, GAP, aT (en ac tartarico), absorbancias en HCI 2% d280, y d520 (recuerdo que los valores obtenidos se multiplican por 100).

2ª. Calibrado General: Absorbancias en HCL 2% d280, y 520 (recuerdo que los valores obtenidos se multiplican por 100, más las medidas en tampón C a 420,520,y 620 (recuerdo que multiplicado por 20).








¿Cómo se Elabora el Vino Blanco?

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¿CÓMO SE ELABORA EL VINO BLANCO?

- La principal característica de la vinificación en blanco es que se fermenta solamente el zumo de la uva o mosto en ausencia de las partes sólidas del racimo.

- La recolección precoz de la uva, la realización de una cuidadosa vendimia y el rápido transporte a la bodega son factores de calidad en la vinificación en blanco.

- La extracción del mosto puede realizarse por prensado previo despalillado-estrujado, exclusivamente por estrujado o bien mediante prensado directo. En cualquier caso, debe ser rápida y fraccionada, separando el mosto yema para su fermentación independiente.

- La maceración en frío de la vendimia es una práctica cada vez más utilizada cuando se desea extraer el máximo contenido aromático. La aplicación de bajas temperaturas permite una extracción selectiva y evita el comienzo de la fermentación.

- El desfangado del mosto es una técnica imprescindible para asegurar la limpidez del mosto, evitando durante la fermentación la aparición de sabores y olores que disminuirán la calidad organoléptica del vino. Puede realizarse de forma estática o dinámica.

- La conducción de la fermentación a bajas temperaturas permite obtener vinos más aromáticos, evita paradas de fermentación y pérdidas de alcohol. La fermentación maloláctica no es una práctica muy habitual en la vinificación en blanco.

- La fermentación en barricas aporta al vino blanco características distintivas, ya que conserva las características organolépticas propias de la variedad junto con otras aportadas por la madera nueva, y las de la crianza sobre lías, que tiene lugar posteriormente a la fermentación.

- La protección de mostos y vinos blancos contra la oxidación evita la desnaturaliación de los aromas, así como el oscurecimiento del color.


- El Color: El color blanco es imposible en un vino, pero curiosamente define uno de los tipos básicos de elaboración. En realidad, los vinos blancos son más bien amarillos, que van desde los muy pálidos, pasando por los que tienen reflejos verdosos (amarillo verdoso), acerados, amarillo pajizo, a los ligeramente oxidados y a los naranjas claros.

Como curiosidad, algunos vinos elaborados exclusivamente con uvas blancas pueden incluso exhibir colores que van del ámbar al caoba, por lo que no serían considerados como tales (en particular vinos fuertemente oxidados y generosos, y/o producidos con uvas pasas, tales como el oloroso o el PX).

En viticultura el color se refiere al de la uva (el de su piel y su pulpa), que tendrá una influencia decisiva en el del vino. Su formación es muy complicada y depende de una infinidad de factores tanto naturales como humanos.

Muy básicamente, el color se verá afectado por el grado de madurez del fruto, su estado sanitario y la conecta formación de polifenoles, pigmentados o no. En la gran mayoría de uvas el color se crea en los hollejos durante el envero (maduración).

Mientras en uvas tintas los principales compuestos responsables del color de la piel son los antocianos (en forma de antocianinas), en uvas blancas parece ser que es la interacción de la clorofila, algunos flavonoides (flavanoles, flavonas y flavonoles), carotenoides y no pigmentados.

En las variedades blancas, las sustancias responsables del color amarillo, son también polifenoles del grupo de los flavonoides: flavonoles, flavanonoles y flavonas, que se localizan también en el hollejo y principalmente en la epidermis. Las variedades tintas también contienen estos compuestos, pero pasan a un segundo término de importancia respecto de los antocianos, aunque no son de despreciar, pues intervienen en la coloración tinta de las uvas o de los vinos por fenómenos de copigmentación entre antocianos y flavonoles.

En las viníferas blancas o rosadas, el nivel de polifenoles (taninos y flavonoles) es menor que en las tintas, pues en su origen surgieron como mutaciones de albinismo de las variedades tintas, donde desaparecieron total o parcialmente los antocianos y se atenuó el nivel de los polifenoles resultantes.

La distribución de los polifenoles en el hollejo y esencialmente los taninos, se adopta como un mecanismo de defensa de la vid frente a posibles ataques de enfermedades producidas por hongos sobre el grano de uva, puesto que los taninos poseen una notable propiedad fungicida, de esta forma las variedades de uva blanca som más sensibles a las enfermedades. Por eso también la localización de los taninos en las pepitas, distribuyéndose en dos capas de tejido externo e interno, para una mejor defensa del embrión ubicado en su interior.

Como primer paso para conseguir una buena coloración de la baya, la vid debe desarrollar todo su potencial durante la maduración, con lo cual es crucial que el viticultor elija una casta bien adaptada al suelo y clima específicos de la zona.

Poda, conducción, rendimiento, insolación, riego o abonos son sólo algunas de las variables que pueden ser controladas por el hombre en la viña y que influyen en el color de las uvas.


- Definición: Los vinos blancos son técnicamente aquellos vinos hechos de uvas blancas, o de tintas que no hayan macerado con los hollejos (ej: blanc de noirs).

En los vinos blancos la separación de las partes sólidas se realiza antes de la fermentación. Esta operación, para la cual se realiza el prensado, debe de ser lo más rápida posible para evitar el paso de sustancias del hollejo al mosto (maceración) y preservar al mosto de oxidaciones.

Las formas de extracción de los mostos en los vinos blancos son diversas y dependen sobre todo del tipo de vino que queramos elaborar:

- Extraerse el mosto de la uva previo despalillado-estrujado.

- Solamente estrujando, para a continuación proceder al escurrido y prensado.

- Directamente al prensado de la vendimia. 

Por lo general y en cuanto a la elaboración, son normalmente despojados de hollejos, escobajo y pepitas para que no maceren y se evite la extracción de polifenoles amargos y fácilmente oxidables.

Aunque tamibén es cierto y al contrario de lo que se piensa, algunos blancos pueden llegar a vinificarse de manera muy parecida a los tintos, en contacto con sus hollejos antes de la fermentación (maceraciónpelicular) para obtener mayor complejidad aromática y sápida.

Al igual que los tintos, la mayoría de los blancos se diferencian por la uva (variedad empleada, uvas con botritis, vendimia tardía, uvas agraces (vino verde), etc.), niveles de azúcar residual (seco, semi dulce o dulce), por las peculiaridades de la elaboración (fermentación en barrica, generoso, maceración pelicular, espumoso, sobre lías, ‘blanc de noirs’, etc.) o por su crianza (oxidativa en barrica, inerte en depósitos, etc.).

Además, las pequeñas artes del vinificador tienen una importancia decisiva en la calidad. Los vinos serán muy diferentes según hayan sido fermentados en madera nueva o vieja, con maceración prefermentativa o sin ella, a temperatura mayor o menos, etc.


- Elaboración: Las condiciones de la fermentación del mosto presentan gran importancia desde el, unto de vista de la calidad del vino a obtener, especialmente desde el aspecto aromático.

- La duración de la fermentación en blancos es larga (puede prolongarse 15-20 días) ya que debe realizarse a temperaturas inferiores a 20 °C.

- La temperatura ha de ser baja para que la fermentación se desarrolle con mayor eficacia y origine un elevado número de compuestos aromáticos sin ocasionar pérdidas importantes de los aromas varietales ni del etanol producido.

La temperatura óptima es del orden de 17 a 18 °C, aunque con algunos vinos varietales se realiza a 15-16 °C y se prolonga durante 30 días. Una temperatura superior a 30 °C puede provocar una parada de fermentación, y superior a 20 °C provoca una importante pérdida de aromas varietales por el arrastre del carbónico en la fermentación tumultuosa.

- Los depósitos de acero inoxidable son los mejor adaptados al proceso de fermentación de los vinos blancos, ya que permiten controlar la temperatura de fermentación de forma efectiva mediante camisas de refrigeración.

El enfriamiento por circulación del mosto en intercambiadores de calor o las duchas exteriores de agua sólo aportan una solución parcial, ya que por ese medio es bastante difícil mantener la temperatura de fermentación por debajo de 20 °C, sobre todo en las zonas más cálidas.

- Si la fermentación tiene que realizarse en depósitos de cemento, de poliéster, madera o de acero no provisto de camisas u otro sistema de control, las placas y serpentines refrigerantes podrían ser una alternativa válida.

- Durante el tiempo que dure la fermentación deben controlarse diariamente la temperatura y densidad, descubándose cuando la densidad se mantenga constante.

- Una vez acabada la fermentación alcohólica, es indispensable la determinación analítica de los azúcares reductores para establecer el final de la fermentación, incluso si la densidad es muy baja y permanece estable.

- La eliminación rápida de las lías en suspensión en los vinos jóvenes sulfitados es importante, sobre todo si se trata de grandes volúmenes, por el posible desarrollo de olores sulfhídricos. Actualmente se observa una tendencia a eliminar sólo las lías gruesas y dejar durante un tiempo el vino blanco en contacto con las lías finas para aumentar su estructura y que la autolisis de las levaduras aporte ciertos componentes aromáticos.

- En los vinos blancos no es frecuente realizar la fermentación maloláctica. Para evitarla, el vino se trasiega inmediatamente y se sulfita hasta que alcance una concentración de sulfuroso libre del orden de 30 a 40 mg/l.

- En cambio, si se busca la fermentación maloláctica espontánea y por lo tanto se ha evitado un sulfitado fuerte del mosto y un desfangado muy severo, el vino se deja sobre las lías hasta la desaparición del ácido málico. La siembra de Oenococcus oeni permite controlar la fermentación maloláctica y que ésta tenga lugar en menos tiempo.

- Una vez trasegados, los vinos permanecen durante un período de tiempo en bodega, realizándose, posteriormente, los tratamientos finales de acabado.

- Son importantes los azúcares. Los blancos normalmente no hacen maloláctica, y se suelen dejar con azúcares reductores aprox. 3 g/l para buscar un equilibrio con la acidez. El tipo de vinos resultante va a depender, entre otros factores, de la cantidad de azúcar residual que contengan.

Seco: Inferior a 5
Abocado: Entre 5 y 15
Semiseco: Entre 15 y 30
Semidulce: Entre 30 y 50
Dulce: Superior a 50


1.- Uvas: Resulta de gran importancia, que la vendimia sea sana, para preservar las características varietales. Ya que la presencia de fruta atacada por enfermedades origina vinos de mala calidad, con un conjunto enzimático que favorece la oxidación de los mostos y posteriormente de los vinos, originando desequilibrios en la composición de los elementos y surgiendo olores y matices de color no adecuados, en detrimento de la calidad del producto.

- El aroma de la uva blanca, localizado en el hollejo y en las células subyacentes, aparece pronto, mucho antes de su completa maduración, alcanzándose, en climas cálidos, la mayor concentración aromática antes del momento de plena madurez, de tal forma que una recolección precoz tiende a dar aromas más finos e intensos, al contrario de lo que sucede en los vinos tintos.

Aunque si la recolección se adelanta demasiado, aún existen aromas herbáceos que pueden ser desagradables. Se establece, en general, que el momento óptimo desde el punto de vista aromático tiene lugar uan o dos semanas antes de la madurez completa.

- Conseguir un mejor equilibrio ácido. Además de su aroma, lo que hace agradable a un vino blanco es su frescura, o sea, su acidez adecuada.

- Evitar grados alcohólicos demasiados elevados. Un vino blanco seco debe tener una graduación alcohólica aproximada de 11-12,5 grados, y para lograrlo no es recomendable que la uva alcance su máximo valor en azúcares. Un caso especial lo contituyen los vinos duces y licorosos.

- Evitar la podredumbre, de lo contrario los vinos presentan sabor acre, a podrido, incluso herbáceo, se vuelven más sensibles a la oxidación y se dificulta su clarificación.


2.- Vendimia: Desde que las uvas están cortadas, es capital proceder volozmente a la extracción del mosto. La operación es delicada, ya que es necesario evitar un contacto prolongado con el oxigeno, porque el mosto blanco es particularmente sensible a la oxidación. Eso explica por qué ciertos viticultores proceden al prensado directamente en la viña cuando está muy alejada de la bodega.

Es conveniente realizar la vendimia de uva blanca en las horas mnás frescas. Si la temperatura de la vendimia es elevada, se favorecen los fenómenos de maceración y oxidación, por lo que el transporte y el procesado de la uva deben ser inmediatos.

Las altas temperaturas dificultan también el proceso de desfangado y el control de la temperatura de fermentación, por lo que es recomendable realizar un enfriamiento previo pasando la vendimia por un intercambiador.

La utilización de sulfuroso sobre la uva es una práctica extendida cuando el procesado no se puede hacer de forma inmediata, ya que evita los fenómenos de oxidación, pero en cambio acentúa la maceración.

3.- Recepción: La descarga se hace sobre tolvas de acero inoxidable, en las que el movimiento de las uvas se realiza con los tornillos sinfín, siendo recomendable que éstos sean del mayor diámetro posible y con un movimiento suave de la uva, llegando la uva directamente a la despalilladora-estrujadora.

4.- Estrujado y despalillado: Generalmente no se suelen despalillar estas vendimias, pues en la posterior fase de prensado, la presencia de escobajos facilita la extracción del mosto.

Se utilizan estrujadoras a rodillos acanalados cuya separación es regulable. Girando en sentido inverso, atrapan los racimos y aplastan las bayas. Debe asegurarse de que dejen intactos escobajos y semillas.

Los movimientos de la vendimia estrujada hacia las fases de escurrido-prensado deben hacerse de tal manera que no contribuyan a la degradación del mosto.
Para ello, lo ideal es colocar la estrujadora por encima de los escurridores o las prensas, para que pueda llenarse por gravedad sin necesidad de recurrir a una bomba de vendimia.


5.- Escurrido: En la fase de escurrido se pretende extraer de la vendimia una gran cantidad de mosto de primera calidad para elaborarlo por separado y aumentar los rendimientos de las máquinas que siguen a continuación.

Inmediatamente después de estrujada la pasta, se procede a su escurrido. Su misión es separar el zumo liberado por el estrujado, que constituye el mosto de "mejor calidad" o "mosto yema".

El sulfitado de la vendimia se realiza en las canalizaciones que conducen la pasta al luar de escurrido, pero también podría hacerse en el mosto ya escurrido. Si la vendimia ha sido sulfitada en el campo, ya contiene cierta cantidad de anhídrido sulfuroso que la protege de oxidaciones. En ese caso no se vuelve a sulfitar hasta haber determinado en mosto la cantidad de sulfuroso a añadir.

Para cantidades pequeñas de vendimia estrujada, el sistema de escurrido más utilizado es la jaula de la prensa. Pero para procesar grandes volúmenes de vendimia será necesario utilizar otro sitema de escurrido, ya que el ritmo de entrada de la vendimia es mayor que el de prensado.

Un sistema alternativo saría un escurridor mecánico giratorio o bien las jaulas de escurrido cerradas con atmósfera inerte de carbónico o nitrógeno.

El mosto obtenido por escurrido es transportado mediante una bomba para líquidos y enviado a los depósitos de desfangado.


6.- Prensado: Para los vinos blancos, el prensado puede realizarse una vez estrujada y escurrida la vendimia o bien directamente, tal como llega a la bodega.

El despalillado y estrujado previo al prensado es el sistema más utilizado en la extracción de mostos de uva blanca, permite gran rapidez en el procesado y, por lo tanto, minimiza el riesgo de oxidaciones y evita el aporte de sustancias herbáceas procedentes de los hollejos.

La compactación de la pasta dificulta esta operación, por lo que es frecuente la introducción en prensa de una parte de la vendimia sin despalillar, ya que los raspones facilitan el drenaje durante el prensado, facilitando así el escurrido del mosto.

El prensado sin estrujado o prensado directo es una alternativa bastante utilizada en la extracción de mostos blancos de calidad, ya que da lugar a mostos con menor tendencia a la oxidación, muy limpios, con pocos fangos y con una mínima cantidad de compuestos herbáceos. Como el prensado es un proceso lento, si la cantidad de uva a procesar es elevada, requiere un gran número de prensas. Las prensas continuas facilitan el procesado, pero su alto precio dificulta su implantación, utilizándose en el prensado de vendimias blancas destinadas a elaborar vinos base de espumosos.

Con cualquiera de estos sistemas, el prensado es problemático en la vinificación en blanco, ya que si queremos obtener vinos de calidad, el prensado ha de ser suave, pero a su vez ha de realizarse rápidamente el mismo día de la entrada de la uva en la bodega. La operación de prensado constituye un importante cuello de botella en la elaboración de vinos blancos, ya que suele ser una operación discontinua que da lugar a importantes pérdidas de tiempo al cargar y descargar la prensa, así como al aplicar las presiones de forma progresiva.

Para elaborar vinos blancos de calidad se necesitan prensas que suministren poca preión y homogéneamente repartida, y que además tengan un rendimiento aceptable para que no retrasen en exceso el proceso, y las prensas que reúnen estas características tienen unos precios muy elevados. De la correcta realización de esta operación va a depender en gran medida la calidad final del vino.

De una manera general, todas las prensas pueden obtener las mismas calidades de mostos, siempre que las presiones de trabajo no son excesivas y el tiempo de prensado tampoco lo es. A partir de aquí, se puede seguir obteniendo más mosto, pero de calidad inferior al extraerse componentes indeseables de hollejos y raspones.

- Sistema en continuo: Con desvinador o escurridor, sólo en grandes instalaciones. Se obtienen grandes rendimientos de mosto (de cada 100 kg de uva se obtienen un 70% de mosto). Resultan mostos muy turbios. La turbidez se mide en NTU, lo normal oscila entre 300-500 NTU. Cuando se desfanga se queda en 100-150. Se llegan a obtener mostos entre 1000-10000 NTU. Los fangos pueden llegar a ocupar después del desfangado hasta un 30% del depósito. En realidad con este sistema se consiguen vinos de mala calidad, muchos herbáceos, más bastos, se procesa mucho la uva. Tienen más taninos porque no se elimina el raspón.

- Las prensas verticales tienen la ventaja de realizar un prensado lento, donde salen mostos muy limpios y maceran más tiempo (más aromas). Tienen el inconveniente de obtener poco rendimiento, se forman bolsas que no permiten prensar bien. Pej. el champán se prensa en verticales porque están pensadas para prensar blancos, siendo muy anchas y bajas.

- Las prensas horizontales son rápidas pero dislaceran mucho, formando muchos fangos.

- Las prensas neumáticas de membrana depende el uso que se les de. Son mejores que las horizontales siempre que se usen a presiones bajas y no hagan muchos ciclos de prensado, ya que producen muchos fangos. Las hay de 2 tipos: abiertas, oxidan mucho y cerradas, que protegen de la oxidación pudiéndose utilizar para macerar. Son mejores pero mucho más caras.


7.- Maceración prefermentativa, pelicular o de hollejos: La maceración prefermentaria en vinificación en blanco consiste en llevar la vendimia estrujada a bajas temperaturas para favorecer la extracción de los compuestos aromáticos de los hollejos, así como de otros compuesto, que aportan estructura al vino, sin que que aumenten los polifenoles, ya que las bajas temperaturas y la ausencia de alcohol no favorecen la estracción de éstos. También se produce durante la maceración una intensificación del color, una disminución de la acidez por una mayor disolución de potasio y un incremento del contenido en coloides.

Para realizar la maceración sin extraer compuestos no deseados, la vendimia debe estar despalillada y estrujada, la refrigeración debe hacerse lo más rápidamente posible (máximo 3 horas) y la temperatura debe ser de aproximadamente 5 °C nunca más de 8 °C, ya que aumentarían los poli fenoles y no habría un bloqueo satisfactorio de las enzimas oxidantes. La maceración se realiza con baja concentración de anhídrido sulfuroso (3-4 g/hl), ya que éste actúa como disolvente, y debe durar entre 12 y 24 horas (resultan muy beneficiosas las atmósferas inertes para evitar oxidaciones). También es frecuente la adición de enzimas pectolíticas, que favorecen la extracción de compuestos aromáticos y facilitan el posterior desfangado. El tiempo de maceración depende de la variedad, necesitando más tiempo las variedades más pobres, y de la madurez, a menor madurez más tiempo de maceración. Una vez concluida la maceración prefermentaria, se escurre la pasta y se ajusta el sulfuroso.

Para realizar la criomaceración se necesita un equipo de elevada potencia frigorífica y, a ser posible, un tanque macerador, por lo que aumenta los costes de elaboración. Algunas bodegas utilizan tanques y autovinificadores rotatorios o estáticos, pero otras más pequeñas realizan la maceración en la propia prensa o en los sistemas de escurrido, previo enfriamiento de la pasta estrujada en un intercambiador o, en algunos casos, con nieve carbónica.

Esta técnica ennoblece las variedades menos aromáticas, pero sólo es útil para uvas sanas. Si no se realiza adecuadamente, tiene el inconveniente de que, paralelamente a la extracción de aromas, el mosto se carga de polifenoles, que oscurecen el vino, tomando gustos herbáceos o astringentes inadecuados para un vino joven. Es imprescindible la utilización de bajas temperaturas que eviten el comienzo de la fermentación, ya que si no, es imposible realizar el desfangado del mosto antes de la fermentación.

Un efecto similar al provocado con la criomaceración se induce con la "supraextracción" o "críoextracción", que consiste en congelar las uvas enteras y descongelarlas procediendo posteriormente a su procesado. Como consecuencia de este tratamiento se forman cristales de hielo que desgarran las paredes de las células, facilitando la extracción de los compuestos aromáticos. Para evitar la disolución de compuestos polifenólicos en el mosto hay que proceder a un prensado y desfangado inmediato. Este proceso es el que realizan de forma natural las uvas que se congelan en el viñedo, a partir de las cuales se elaboran los “vinos de hielo”.

Criomaceración: Técnica parecida a la marceración prefermentativa pero a temperaturas muy bajas. Hay quien utiliza 5-7ºC y hasta bajo cero -3ºC. Rompe las células sacando todo el contenido.

Surpa-Extracción: Sistema que consiste en congelar uvas, descongelarlas y prensarlas. Se destruyen todas las células resultando un aumento muy grande de aromas. Es un proceso lento y caro.

Maceración Carbónica: También es posible realizar con la vendimia íntegra una maceración en ambiente de C02 "maceración carbónica" de 48 horas a la temperatura de la bodega. Es necesario que las uvas estén intactas y en perfecto estado, suministrándoles carbónico comercial y evitando al máximo el contacto del mosto escurrido por aplastamiento con los racimos intactos. Una vez concluida la maceración, ha de procederse rápidamente al prensado, realizándose la fermentación alcohólica del mosto a una temperatura máxima de 20 °C. Los vinos blancos de maceración carbónica son más corpulentos y grasos, su color es más amarillo y el riesgo de pardeamlento es más acentuado; en cambio, sus aromas están más marcados y poseen una elegancia y personalidad característica.


8- Sulfitado: Tiene que estar dosificado en el depósito de desfangado. Si vamos a adicionar todo el SO2 en el depósito de desfangado, lo mejor es echarlo de golpe ya que si no se combinaría y perdería efectividad.

La dosis normal es 7-8 g/Hl (antes del desfangado). Lo mínimo 5 g/Hl. Con dosis de 5 g/Hl no actúa la tirosinasa, situación que no ocurre con la laccasa por lo que hay que aumentar las dosis si la uvas se encuentran en mal estado sanitario.

Tirosinasa: Oxida menos. Se encuentra en todas las uvas. La cantidad depende de la variedad. La garnacha tiene mucho más que el tempranillo.

Laccasa: Oxida mucho, pero sólo se encuentra en uvas podridas.

Funciones del SO2.
- Evitar la oxidación química.
- Evitar la oxidación enzimática producida por las enzimas polifenol oxidasa (ambas necesitan O2).

Existe una técnica, "Hiperoxidación" o "Hiperoxigenación", que consiste en someter al vino a una oxidación antes del desfangado. Todos los polifenoles susceptibles de oxidarse se oxidan, precipitan y se eliminan con el desfangado. Son vinos que quedan protegidos de la oxidación, necesitando menos SO2. Tiene el inconveniente de oxidar también los aromas. Lo ideal sería utilizar variedades muy aromáticas o levaduras que aportaran aromas.

También se puede jugar con temperaturas bajas para limitar el uso de SO2. Se disuelve más oxígeno pero las reacciones de oxidación, tanto químicas como enzimáticas, son muy lentas. Enfriando los mostos se pueden limitar las oxidaciones. Una vez que empiece la FOH las oxidaciones no son peligrosas porque hay CO2 (es reductor).


9.- Desfangado o desburbado: Los mostos presentan en suspensión restos de tierra, polvo, trozos de raspones y hollejos, sustancias pécticas y mucilaginosas, proteínas precipitadas, etc., que son genéricamente conocidos como fangos.

La presencia de fangos en el mosto es un factor negativo para la calidad ya que, al depositarse en el fondo, constituyen una masa de notable volumen que no es posible homogenizarla con el resto del líquido y que engloba gran cantidad de proteínas, levaduras, bacterias, etc., que dan lugar a compuestos de olor y sabor desagradable (metilpropanol, metilbutanol, sulfhídrico, mercaptanos, etc.). Por otro lado, los restos de células del hollejo ceden color, polifenoles tánicos y polifenoloxidasas.

La cantidad y naturaleza de los fangos depende de la uva, del momento y la forma de realizar la vendimia, de su estado sanitario (las uvas podridas proporcionan más fangos que las uvas sanas) y sobre todo de la técnica de obtención del mosto.

El aumento de los fangos depende sobre todo del mayor o menor frotamiento mecánico de las pieles durante la extracción, y esto a su vez depende de la utilización o no del tornillo sin fin en la descarga de la uva, de que se despalille la vendimia, de que se estruje y del tipo de estrujadora utilizada, de la separación de los rodillos de ésta, del tipo de escurridor y de la prensa utilizada.

El prensado sin estrujado produce poco volumen de fangos (del 5 al 10%), finos y de sedimentación lenta, que dejan el mosto un poco turbio. El estrujado y el escurrido mecánico producen mayor cantidad de fangos (del 15 al 20% con estrujadora de rodillos y 30% con estrujadora centrífuga), más gruesos, que caen rápidamente y dejan el mosto limpio. La mayor cantidad de fangos se obtiene de vendimias en mal estado sanitario y sometidas a una extracción mecánica demasiado intensa. En este caso es recomendable prensar la vendimia sin estrujado para disminuir los fangos y facilitar su eliminación.

El desfangado consiste en separar del mosto estos fangos. Esta clarificación espontánea o provocada se realiza antes de la fermentación, cuyo comienzo se retrasa con un sulfitado.


El vino procedente de un mosto desfangado ofrece las siguientes ventajas:

- La ausencia de contacto mosto-fangos da lugar a vinos de aroma más intenso, más puro, de mayor frescura, acidez y ligereza, con menor contenido en alcoholes superiores (por disminución de sus aminoácidos precursores ligados a los fangos) y ácidos grasos volátiles, y mayor contenido en ésteres (la falta de lípidos induce su formación por parte de las levaduras).

- Son menos sensibles a la acción del oxigeno como consecuencia de la eliminación de la tirosinasa, que se encuentra en los fangos (la lacasa es soluble en el mosto).

- Color más pálido por disminución de los contenidos férricos y de otros elementos minerales y por menor contacto con los hollejos.

-  Afecta a la población microbiana del mosto disminuyendo el número de levaduras y haciendo menos tumultuosa la fermentación, pero tiene un efecto contrario sobre las bacterias lácticas, ya que estimula la liberación de manoproteínas de las levaduras, que estimulan el crecimiento bacteriano, de forma que al final de la fermentación alcohólica su número es mayor y la fermentación maloláctica se inicia más rápidamente y concluye antes.

Pero también presenta inconvenientes, mayores cuanto más enérgico sea el desfangado:

- Requiere procesar grandes volúmenes de vino en un espacio corto de tiempo.

- En el desfangado se producen pérdidas de precursores aromáticos y de otros componentes del extracto. Estas pérdidas pueden llegar a ser importantes si el desfangado es muy intenso.

- Si el desfangado es muy drástico, puede disminuir la carga microbiana y los nutrientes hasta el punto de impedir el arranque y consecución de la fermentación, lo que obliga a utilizar pies de cuba y activadores de la fermentación.

El desfangado debe eliminar los fangos gruesos, pero no los finos, ya que éstos tienen la capacidad de fijar ciertos ácidos grasos tóxicos para las levaduras, asi como el ácido acético. En ausencia de esta fijación, disminuye el crecimiento y la actividad de las levaduras. Es necesario que el desfangado proporcione una turbidez comprendida entre 50 y 200 NTU, en función de la riqueza del mosto en nutrientes, de la temperatura de fermentación y del tipo de vino a elaborar.


- Tipos de desfangado: Antes de desfangar se puede pasar el mosto por tamices autolimpiables (desburbadores), donde se eliminan las impurezas más grandes. Sus mallas suelen tener entre 0,4 y 3 mm y pueden ser utilizados en cualquier fase del proceso de elaboración siempre que sea necesario separar sólidos de ciertas dimensiones.

Los desfangados que comúnmente se realizan en las bodegas son de tipo estático o dinámico, pero actualmente se están introduciendo otras técnicas como la hiperoxidación y la flotación.

Desfangado estático 

- Sedimentación natural: Consiste en la separación de los fangos por sedimentación y posterior trasiego. Esta decantación se produce de forma natural, dejando el mosto en reposo entre 12 y 48 horas, por el propio peso de los fangos, y es facilitado por la acción de las enzimas pectolíticas, que rompen las pectinas produciendo la floculación de los coloides. Una vez decantado, el mosto limpio se trasiega y se lleva directamente a fermentación, mientras que los fangos suspendidos en mosto que se encuentran en la parte inferior del depósito se filtran o centrifugan y el mosto obtenido se destina a vinos de segunda categoría (el vino obtenido de los fangos es de mala calidad y tiene un sabor herbáceo, terroso). Este método de desfangado es el mejor desde el punto de vista de la calidad ya que, al no existir manipulación, no se producen oxidaciones ni maceraciones, pero tiene el inconveniente de utilizar mucho espacio en la bodega y ser un método lento, que fuerza a utilizar dosis de sulfuroso más altas para retrasar la fermentación. El proceso es más rápido y efectivo si se realiza en recipientes de volúmenes no muy grandes (máximo, 20.000 litros) y de poca altura.

- Decantación con clarificantes: Los clarificantes (colas) se unen a los coloides del mosto formando partículas de gran tamaño que al caer hacia el fondo arrastran consigo los fangos presentes en el mosto. Su uso permite abreviar el tiempo de desfangado, con el consiguiente ahorro de espacio y reducción de la dosis de sulfuroso. La bentonita se utiliza en mostos muy proteicos para evitar la turbidez y el riesgo de quiebra proteica.

- Decantación con frío: El desfangado estático y la acción de los clarificantes son mucho más eficaces a baja temperatura. Además, el frío retrasa la fermentación, con lo que se rebaja la dosis de sulfuroso. Se suele bajar la temperatura del mosto a 8-10 °C mediante intercambiadores de calor, bien de todo el volumen o enfriando una parte a 0 °C y añadiendo fracciones de mosto a temperatura ambiente hasta alcanzar la temperatura deseada.

- Decantación con enzimas: Las enzimas pectolíticas degradan las sustancias pécticas del mosto y contribuyen a su limpidez en el desfangado. La adición de enzimas pectolíticas comerciales refuerza la acción de las que tiene el mosto de forma natural. Estas enzimas comerciales disminuyen la viscosidad del mosto y dan lugar a una decantación más rápida con formación de una capa de heces más compacta, pero también tienen inconvenientes ya que, además de la producción de metanol, pueden contener otras enzimas que den lugar a oxidaciones por liberación de ácidos cinámicos, que a su vez pueden ejercer una acción maderizante del vino, oscurecer el color y modificar aromas.


Desfangado dinámico

- Desfangado por filtración con filtro rotativo a vacío: El filtrado de los mostos es una operación complicada debido al poder colmatante de las sustancias que forman los fangos.

Para el desfangado de mostos por filtración se utilizan filtros rotativos a vacío o filtros de tambor. Constan de un tambor rotatorio cilindrico con una doble malla perforada, una fina y otra más gruesa, sobre las que se coloca una precapa de tierras filtrantes (diatomeas, perlitas, etc.) que retiene los fangos formando una torta de filtración. Las heces se separan de la capa filtrante con un rascador regulable, siendo recogidas por un transportador de tornillo sin fin. La alimentación del mosto se realiza en una bandeja inferior, que es atravesada por el tambor al girar, pasando el mosto al interior del tambor por efecto del vacío. A la salida del tambor, el mosto pasa por un dispositivo desespumante .

Estos filtros pueden tener un gran rendimiento (de 75 a 350 l/h/m2), pudiendo alcanzar los 20.000 l/h. Dan lugar a fangos muy secos, más fáciles de manipular, pero tienen un elevado consumo de tierras y la formación de la precapa enlentece el proceso. Por otro lado, deja los mostos excesivamente limpios, ya que produce pérdidas de componentes aromáticos y estructurales, de levaduras y nutrientes. Para minimizar sus efectos puede añadirse parte de mosto sin desfangar.

Se utiliza en el tratamiento de mostos con muchos fangos y para filtrar fangos procedentes de otro tipo de desfangado. El mosto obtenido de los fangos no se puede utilizar para elaborar vinos de calidad.

- Desfangado por centrifugación: Está basado en la acción de la fuerza centrífuga, que es el método más rápido para separar sólidos. Las centrífugas que se utilizan son de acero inoxidable, con una serie de platos dispuestos alrededor de un eje vertical. Llevan un sistema de evacuación automática de fangos y su cierre es hermético para evitar la oxidación del mosto.

El mosto entra por la parte superior y es sometido a un movimiento de giro a velocidad elevada (6.000 a 8.000 rpm), que deposita los sólidos inicialmente en los platos, pasando luego al cono de la periferia, donde se acumulan. La descarga puede estar programada a intervalos de tiempo constantes, en función de lo turbio que esté el mosto, o bien realizarse por autodisparo cuando los fangos depositados en la periferia alcancen cierto grado de acumulación, previamente prefijado.

En el momento de la descarga se abre al medio la carcasa interna y deja al descubierto unas ranuras por las que se eliminan los fangos. La descarga puede ser parcial, total o variable, y el método es prácticamente continuo, pues sólo se interrumpe la entrada de mosto durante el tiempo de descarga (menos de 1 minuto) en el caso de descarga total. Si la descarga es parcial, dura menos de un segundo y no es necesario interrumpir la entrada de mosto ya que sólo salen las partículas más próximas a los bordes. La descarga variable es una combinación de las dos, una total más espaciada y varias parciales más a menudo.

La centrifugación tiene una serie de ventajas con respecto a los otros métodos:

-    Mínimo espacio necesario para realizar el desfangado.
-    Mayor rapidez de la operación: gran rendimiento (hasta 60.0001/h).
-    Ahorro de mano de obra.
-    Menos tiempo de contacto entre mostos y fangos: mínimas maceraciones y oxidaciones.
-    Posibilidad de graduar la intensidad del desfangado en función de la limpidez deseada.
-    Versatilidad de usos, permite desfangar mostos, clarificar vinos ya fermentados, abrillantar vinos antes del embotellado, recuperación de mosto y vino de los fangos y lías, etc.

Como inconvenientes podemos citar el alto precio de estos equipos y el enérgico tratamiento que dan a los mostos, que puede deteriorar en parte su calidad, ocasionando pérdidas importantes de sus componentes.

La centrifugación se suele realizar después de un breve reposo para que sedimenten las impurezas más grandes, y puede combinarse su uso con un decantador centrífugo, que eliminaría el grueso de los sólidos, pasando a continuación a una centrífuga de eje vertical y alta velocidad, que dejaría el mosto completamente limpio.

El decantador centrífugo es una centrífuga de forma cónica y eje horizontal, que lleva en su interior un tomillo sin fin que gira en el mismo sentido que el rotor que lo envuelve, pero a velocidad diferente. A medida que entra el mosto, los sólidos se depositan en el sin fin por acción de la fuerza centrífuga y éste los va descargando en el exterior. Este desfangado es mucho menos enérgico que el anterior, ya que su velocidad de giro es mucho menor (4.000 rpm), y a veces, con objeto de que la fermentación arranque bien, sólo se le da al mosto este tratamiento.


Hiperoxidación

Es un método que combina la oxidación inducida con una técnica de desfangado, generalmente estática, aunque también se podría combinar con cualquier otro método de desfangado.

Se utiliza para mostos que contienen cantidades elevadas de sustancias polifenólicas oxidables. La oxidación forzada del mosto se realiza con oxígeno puro, produciéndose precipitaciones de polifenoles, cuya eliminación por decantado reduce el riesgo de oxidación posterior del vino. La cantidad de oxígeno que se adiciona es del orden de 30 mg/1.

 La hiperoxidación del mosto se realiza aportando oxígeno durante unas dos horas a una temperatura próxima a 15 °C, de forma que la concentración final de 02 sea de 20 mg/1. A continuación se realiza el desfangado, que puede ser estático con adición de sulfuroso, enzimas pectolíticas y clarificantes.

La técnica de la hiperoxidación es de gran interés en la vinificación de variedades con gran potencial oxidativo y elevada carga fenólica, y en la elaboración de vinos blancos a partir de mostos con alto contenido en lacasa, procedentes de vendimia mecánica o de prensado enérgico.

Además de una técnica de desfangado, la hiperoxidación es un tratamiento adicional que protege al vino de oxidaciones, da lugar a vinos menos coloreados y menos proteicos y mejora sus cualidades organolépticas.

Como ventajas de la hiperoxidación podemos citar:

-    Disminuye el contenido en polifenoles totales.
-    Disminuye el contenido en proteínas, evitando el riesgo de quiebras.
-    Favorece la limpidez de mostos y vinos.
-    Conserva los aromas varíetales.
-    Permite rebajar las dosis de SO, y, por tanto, reducir la cantidad de acetaldehído.

La aplicación industrial de la hiperoxidación no es un tratamiento costoso, complejo ni necesita instalaciones específicas, lo que facilita su implantación en bodega.

Flotación

Es el fenómeno contrarío a la sedimentación. Se produce de forma espontánea en los materiales de peso especifico inferior al fluido que los contiene en suspensión.

La técnica se basa en que mezclando mosto con aire o C02 mediante un compresor, se forman burbujas que tienden a subir y arrastran las partículas sólidas hacia la superficie, donde son recogidas. Esta operación es más eficaz si la burbuja es pequeña y las partículas voluminosas, por lo que se suelen utilizar clarificantes y enzimas que aumentan el volumen de los fangos.

Permite hacer un desfangado continuo a temperatura ambiente, a la vez que aumenta la estabilidad de los mostos por la ligera hiperoxigenación que padecen.

Los depósitos que se utilizan son de poca altura y mucha base, y llevan acoplado un mecanismo radial con lento y continuo movimiento, que va arrastrando la espuma formada en la superficie.

El mosto pasa inicialmente por un depósito en el que se adicionan los clarificantes y entra en el depósito de flotación por la parte inferior. Allí se mezcla con el gas y los turbios ascienden hasta la superficie, donde son recogidos. La entrada y salida del mosto se realizan de forma continua.

Estos turbios o fangos contienen una cantidad elevada de mosto, por lo que se someten a un desfangado más drástico, con centrifuga o filtro de vacio, y pueden utilizarse para elaborar vinos de menor calidad.


10.- Encubado del mosto limpio: Una vez desfangado, el mosto limpio es conducido o encubado en los depósitos de fermentación. Se analiza su composición y se realizan las correcciones oportunas.

Principalmente el encubado se realiza en depósitos de acero inoxidable, dotados de refrigeración y fácil control del proceso fermentativo. En determinadas ocasiones el encubado también se puede realizar en barricas de roble, normalmente de 225 litros.

Para elaborar vinos de calidad a partir de una buena materia prima, no es recomendable hacer desfangados muy enérgicos que disminuyan significativamente los componentes del mosto. En cambio, los mostos obtenidos a partir de los fangos o aquellos que proceden de vendimias en mal estado sanitario se ven favorecidos por un fuerte desfangado, que si bien va a dar lugar a vinos más neutros, elimina algunos componentes negativos para la calidad.

Si el desfangado ha sido muy enérgico, se pueden presentan problemas de empobrecimiento de levaduras y nutrientes, que ocasionan retrasos en el inicio de la fermentación e incluso posteriormente ralentizaciones y paradas fermentativas. Es conveniente en este caso añadir pie de cuba y suplementar el mosto con nutrientes.

- Levaduras: En la fermentación de vinos blancos es muy frecuente la utilización de levaduras autóctonas seleccionadas o, en su defecto, de levaduras secas comerciales. El uso de levaduras comerciales da lugar a vinos más aromáticos, con menos defectos, pero tiende a uniformarlos. Las levaduras autóctonas seleccionadas, en cambio, potencian la calidad aromática de los vinos a la vez que acentúan su personalidad.

La selección de levaduras a partir de la flora autóctona de la uva permite fermentar el mosto en las mejores condiciones, ya que se seleccionan aquellas que sean capaces de transformar los precursores de aromas en compuestos aromáticos de calidad, que den lugar al mínimo de compuestos volátiles perjudiciales y que no tengan tendencia a producir compuestos azufrados.

Se puede realizar un remontado de homogeneización, sin aireación y al principio. También en plena FOH, un remontado con oxigenación para que las levaduras sinteticen los factores de supervivencia.

- Coadyuvantes de fermentación: Si el desfangado no ha conseguido eliminar algunos compuestos que pueden ocasionar problemas en la fermentación o deteriorar la calidad final de los vinos, es habitual la utilización de clarificantes como coadyuvantes de fermentación.

Se utilizan principalmente en mostos turbios, en aquellos que contienen cantidades elevadas de polifenoloxidasas o que poseen una concentración proteica importante. En este caso la adición de bentonita durante la fermentación resulta muy interesante (los mostos procedentes de variedades blancas aromáticas suelen tener un elevado contenido proteico). También podría añadirse celulosa para proporcionar soporte a las levaduras.
De esta forma una vez comenzada la fermentación se puede utilizar la bentonita como coadyuvante. En dosis de 50-100 g/Hl absorbe enzimas oxidantes lo que permite bajar la dosificación de sulfuroso, disminuye el nivel de aminoácidos no deseables y elimina gran parte de las proteínas que contienen los mostos blancos.

La utilización de PVPP (polivinilpolipirrolidona) elimina del mosto los polifenoles oxidables y reduce las oxidaciones del mosto.

El caseinato potásico en combinación con la bentonita resultan del mismo modo un eficaz tratamiento de eliminación del sustrato oxidable.


11.- Fermentación AlcohólicaLa fermentación es el proceso clave en la vinificación. Sin él no obtendríamos vino. Por tanto, hay que cuidar las condiciones en que se realiza, para aumentar la calidad del producto final.

Conducir la fennentación alcohólica es proporcionar las condiciones necesarias que aseguren un buen trabajo de las levaduras y permitan obtener la transformación completa del azúcar en alcohol. También es vigilar su evolución para intervenir en el caso de cualquier desviación. Sólo se produce la fermentación del azúcar y su transformación en alcohol cuando las levaduras se desarrollan bien. La parada de la fermentación indica la detención del crecimiento y su muerte.

- Duración: La FOH dura más que en los vinos tintos (10-15 días) ya que la temperatura es más baja. Normalmente acaba en torno a 993-994 de densidad.

Tiene dos etapas diferenciadas:

- Fermentación tumultuosa: 8-10 días, la actividad de las levaduras es máxima. Coincide con el descenso brusco de la densidad, con el máximo desprendimiento de C02 e incremento de la temperatura.

- Fennentación lenta: como consecuencia del descenso en el nivel de nutrientes, apenas quedará azúcar, el alcohol comienza a ser tóxico para las levaduras, el descenso de la densidad es muy lento, el desprendimiento de C02 reducido y la temperatura se mantiene.

- Control de la fermentación: Desde el punto de vista técnico, el enólogo tiene en sus manos el control de la fermentación en cuatro aspectos.

1. En el aspecto microbiológico puede controlar los agentes que van a protagonizar la fermentación, así como propiciar las condiciones nutritivas idóneas para que se desarrollen perfectamente.
2.  Controlando la temperatura de fennentación.
3.  Control de otros factores, en particular el oxígeno.
4. Debe elegir aquel recipiente o depósito de fermentación que proporcione las mejores condiciones y que le permita el mejor control de la temperatura.



- Temperatura y Aromas: La temperatura de fermentación afecta a la calidad del vino a obtener, especialmente desde el aspecto aromático.

Durante la fermentación aparecerán nuevos aromas, llamados secundarios (ésteres). No son un simple complemento, sino que son indispensables para la calidad de los vinos blancos.

Su formación se favorece cuando la fermentación se desarrolla a una temperatura bastante baja (entre los 16 y los 20 °C). Se considera que la temperatura ideal de fermentación en los vinos blancos está en torno a 18ºC.

Hay quien fermenta a 15ºC, con lo que resultan vinos mucho más finos y aromáticos, pero se corren riesgos en la fermentación (ralentización o parada).

Los aromas secundarios producidos por las levaduras a temperaturas elevadas están en menor cantidad y son menos agradables. Además, una fermentación con temperaturas elevadas va acompañada de una pérdida considerable de aromas varietales arrastrados por el gas carbónico, así como de etanol.

A temperatura mayor de 20 °C aparecen más alcoholes superiores (embastecen el vino), mientras que disminuyen los ésteres (afrutados) formados en relación a los que se forman cuando se utilizan temperaturas menores de 20 °C.

A medida que aumentan las temperaturas en la fermentación, aumenta la cantidad de glicerina, ácido acético, acetaldehído, 2,3-butanodiol y acetoína. El aroma secundario es, es este caso, de menor calidad. 

Esta es una de las razones por las que durante toda la fermentación las cubas de acero inoxidable deben ser refrigeradas permanentemente.

La transformación de glucosa en C02 y alcohol etílico es una reacción exotérmica y por tanto produce un aumento en la temperatura de la masa.

Si la, fermentación tuviera lugar de forma instantánea o en muy poco tiempo, se produciría un incremento de la temperatura del orden de 25 °C con respecto a la inicial. Por tanto, si la vendimia tuviera en un principio 20 °C, llegaría hasta 45 °C. Pero esto no es así, la fermentación sucede a lo largo de 10-15 días en los que el calor se disipa de tres formas:

- A través de las paredes de los depósitos, por irradiación.
- Por evaporación del agua y alcohol.
- Junto con el carbónico desprendido.


Factores que influyen en la temperatura que puede alcanzar un mosto durante la fermentación:

- Tiempo: Cuanto más tiempo dure la fermentación, menos temperatura alcanzará el mosto, pues las calorías desprendidas se evacúan más fácilmente a través de las paredes de los depósitos (por cada gramo de azúcar transformado en alcohol se liberan 25,4 calorías). Tampoco es conveniente alargar en exceso este proceso, ya que se corren riesgos de ataques bacterianos y formación de sulfhídrico.

- Temperatura inicial de la vendimia: Cuanto más baja sea, más lo será la de fermentación, aunque no conviene que sea inferior a 12-15 °C pues fermentará con dificultad.

- Forma de los envases de fermentación: Los recipientes que mejor evacúan el calor, son los que tienen mayor relación superficie/volumen. Los paralelepípedos tienen esta ventaja, pero, sin embargo, los cilindricos, como pueden construirse con menor espesor de las paredes, son los más efectivos.

- Dimensiones de los envases de fermentación: Los recipientes pequeños son los que tienen mayor relación superficie/volumen y por tanto evacuarán mejor el calor. Por límites operativos se pueden estimar como los más óptimos los de 100 a 200 hl de capacidad, y en cuanto a sus dimensiones, los mejores son los que su altura es 2 o 3 veces su diámetro.

- Disposición de los depósitos de fermentación: Conviene instalar depósitos aislados entre sí, ya que con paredes comunes no hay evacuación de calor, y además en los espacios intermedios deben existir corrientes de aire que refrigeren.

Naturaleza de las paredes de los depósitos de fermentación: Según el material de construcción de los depósitos, así como su espesor, la evacuación del calor hacia el exterior se hará más o menos fácilmente. El acero presenta las mejores cualidades y a bastante distancia le siguen el hormigón y la madera.

La temperatura es un factor preponderante para la vida de las levaduras. Éstas no se desarrollan bien más que en una escala de temperaturas relativamente corta. La fermentación es más rápida a temperatura más elevada, puesto que hay mayor transformación de azúcar, pero a 35 °C la fermentación se detiene prácticamente a los 7 días debido a una especie de agotamiento de las levaduras.

Asimismo, el arranque de la fermentación es más rápido a temperatura elevada, pero el grado alcohólico alcanzado es más elevado a baja temperatura. Parece como si las levaduras se fatigasen más cuando trabajan a temperaturas más elevadas. En estas condiciones soportan mal el alcohol, asimilan peor las sustancias nitrogenadas y se reproducen mal, por lo que la fermentación se detiene. Por tanto, la cantidad de azúcar que pueden transformar las levaduras depende de la temperatura. Cuanto más elevada sea, más rápido es el comienzo de la fermentación, pero se detiene antes y el grado alcohólico alcanzado es menor.

Pero en la fermentación no sólo influyen los valores de temperatura alcanzados, también tienen un efecto importante los choques térmicos. Las bajadas y las subidas bruscas de temperatura (±5 °C) son muy peligrosas y pueden originar paradas en la fermentación por detención del desarrollo de las levaduras, dando paso al crecimiento de bacterias lácticas. Si el control de la temperatura no se realiza adecuadamente, existe el riesgo de ralentización e incluso de parada de fermentación.


Métodos de control de la temperatura de fermentación:

- Aislamiento térmico del local, para evitar entradas de calor exterior, y adecuada ventilación del recinto, para evacuar las calorías irradiadas.

- Depósitos de fermentación situados dentro de un recinto climatizado. Este sistema requiere elevadas inversiones en su ejecución, ya que los volúmenes a climatizar son bastante grandes.

- Bloqueo total o parcial de la actividad fermentativa mediante la adición de sulfuroso. Es un método incorrecto, ya que elevamos el nivel de este compuesto, combinándose gran parte con ácidos cetónicos y acetaldehído.

- Remontado del mosto, aunque seguidamente la temperatura de fermentación sube aún más por la multiplicación de levaduras en aerobiosis.

- Inmersión de bolsas de plástico con hielo en los mostos en fermentación. Es un sistema poco eficaz, pues se necesita 1 kg de hielo por hectolitro para bajar la temperatura un grado y además origina problemas de manipulación.

- Ducha de agua vertida exteriormente sobre las paredes del depósito a refrigerar. El agua se distribuye en la cabeza del depósito por un dispositivo anular, recogiéndose en la base por una reguera perimetral y enviándola a un depósito pulmón que la refrigera de nuevo en una torre de enfriamiento.

El fundamento de la refrigeración es el mismo que el del botijo, el agua de la cortina se evapora y para cambiar de estado necesita absorber calor, que toma del interior del depósito. Hay que conseguir que la lámina de agua sea lo más fina posible para que se produzca la evaporación. La instalación se completa con un termostato que controla la temperatura del interior del depósito y es el que abre la válvula electrónicamente para que caiga agua cuando la temperatura sube.

Las principales ventajas de este sistema son la sencillez de instalación, su bajo coste de inversión y que es posible acoplarlo a depósitos no preparados para ello, pero como inconveniente sólo consigue reducir algunos grados la temperatura por lo que en zonas muy cálidas no se consigue un control efectivo. Además, el gasto de agua es considerable, debiendo recuperarse la mayor cantidad posible. Este sistema es bastante eficaz siempre que el material de construcción de los depósitos presente un buen coeficiente de intercambio calórico y que su espesor sea reducido, como ocurre con los depósitos metálicos.

- Serpentín portátil o placas refrigerantes inmersos en el mosto en fermentación, por donde circula líquido o gas refrigerante, normalmente agua glicolada. Tanto los serpentines como las placas deben llevar una tubería de entrada y otra de salida que se comunica con el depósito pulmón, que a su vez es enfriado por un equipo de frío.

Es un sistema cómodo ya que puede transportarse de un depósito a otro y desmontarse cuando finaliza la fermentación. Sirve para depósitos de cualquier tipo, es bastante utilizado en bodegas antiguas con depósitos de hormigón. Es un sistema operativo y valioso en instalaciones de pequeño volumen, pero pierde eficacia a medida que los envases van siendo más grandes. El serpentín suele llevar acoplado un sistema de agitación con el fin de hacer circular el mosto-vino dentro del depósito para homogeneizar temperaturas.

- Camisas de doble pared por donde circula líquido o gas refrigerante. Los depósitos son de acero inoxidable y llevan una serie de camisas anulares separadas entre sí a distintas alturas del recipiente, ocupando de un 15 a un 20% de la superficie total de las paredes. El control corre a cargo de un grupo de frío con conducciones y electroválvulas gobernadas por termostatos regulables. Las camisas están construidas también en acero inoxidable y revestidas de un material aislante. Por dentro de la camisa están los canales de circulación de agua.

Los depósitos suelen llevar una o dos camisas en función de su volumen, normalmente hasta 50.000 l es suficiente una (para tintos, la camisa está en la parte superior, en la zona del sombrero. Para blancos, la situación óptima es a 2/3 del depósito, donde la temperatura es mayor). En algunos depósitos la camisa es desplazable y puede situarse a distintas alturas.

El control de la temperatura es casi exacto, corre a cargo de un grupo de frío con conducciones y electroválvulas gobernadas por termostatos regulables. Llevan sondas que controlan la temperatura en cada momento, activando la circulación de agua cuando se supera el nivel prefijado. Se montan instalaciones automatizadas que pueden controlarse en un panel de mandos.

- Circulación del mosto por un intercambiador refrigerado por agua fría o por corriente forzada de aire. La refrigeración de la vendimia, del mosto o del vino se realiza haciéndolo pasar por un intercambiador. En todos estos sistemas el líquido refrigerante es suministrado por un equipo de frío (generalmente es agua glicolada) y el enfriamiento puede hacerse en un paso (estrechando la salida del producto para que, al pasar lentamente por el intercambiador, enfríe lo deseado) o  en varios pasos (retornando el producto al depósito y volviéndolo a sacar las veces necesarias). Este mismo equipo puede servir también para calentar.


Tipos de intercambiador más utilizados:

- Intercambiador tubular: Consta de dos tubos concéntricos: Por el tubo interior circula el mosto y por el exterior, el fluido refrigerante a contracorriente. Se fabrican enteramente en acero inoxidable, con codos desmontables para su mejor limpieza. Además, el tubo está ligeramente ondulado para aumentar su superficie y facilitar el intercambio térmico. Su longitud puede estar entre 1 y 6 m y su diámetro interno varía entre 25 y 100 mm. Puede montarse sobre ruedas si no es muy largo, de modo que pueda trasladarse de un lugar a otro de la bodega.

Ventajas:
- No sufre fácilmente obturaciones.
- Es muy versátil. Se utiliza para enfriar y calentar vendimias, líquidos viscosos (mostos) y vinos.

Inconvenientes:
- La capacidad de transmisión de calor es inferior a otro tipo de intercambiadores.
- Si queremos enfriar a bajas temperaturas, hay que utilizar tubos muy largos que ocupan mucho espacio. No suelen emplearse para enfriamiento de estabilización.

- Intercambiador de placas: Consta de un conjunto de placas verticales comprimidas en un bastidor entre las que circulan los dos fluidos a contracorriente, refrigerante y mosto o vino. En los extremos de las placas hay unos orificios que conforman los canales de circulación de los fluidos al unirlas en el bastidor. Asimismo, unas juntas de caucho dirigen los líquidos alternativamente por los espacios entre las placas. Las placas son de acero inoxidable y onduladas para favorecer el intercambio térmico. Pueden constar de varias secciones con distintos intercambios térmicos, permitiendo hacer recuperación de frío y calor.

Ventajas:
- Gran capacidad de intercambio térmico, es capaz de producir descensos importantes y rápidos de temperatura.
- Ocupan mucho menos espacio y pueden trasladarse dentro de la bodega.
- Alcanzan caudales importantes, hasta 100.000 l/h.
- Pueden desmontarse las placas para limpiarlas.
-  Fácilmente apilables.

Inconvenientes:
- Facilidad para obturarse, por lo que no suelen emplearse para refrigerar mostos, y el riesgo de oxidación si no han conseguido una hermeticidad adecuada.
- Intercambiador en espiral: Consta de dos láminas de acero de tipo rectangular, que se enrollan dejando entre ellas un espacio para que circule a contracorriente fluido refrigerante y vino. La separación entre ambas láminas puede elegirse en función del producto a refrigerar. La espiral se cierra con dos tapas, una a cada lado. Asimismo, los canales formados se sueldan para que no se mezclen los fluidos. El intercambio térmico es mucho más eficaz porque se ponen en contacto por más caras.

Ventajas:
- Ocupan poco espacio.
-  La capacidad de intercambio térmico es muy elevada.
- Fácil acceso para limpieza.
- Por su disposición en espiral, no se quedan impurezas retenidas en las paredes.
- Pueden utilizarse para enfriar líquidos viscosos y vendimias estruja¬das.
- No precisan grandes aislamientos porque puede conseguirse que el fluido refrigerante entre y salga por el exterior.

- Intercambiador de superficie barrida: También llamado de superficie rascada. Es el modelo más avanzado de intercambiador. Consta de un cuerpo cilindrico perfectamente aislado, provisto de una doble cámara: Por el exterior va el fluido refrigerante que circula en sentido descendente en una cámara concéntrica y en el interior, un eje dotado de paletas que por su movimiento ascendente impulsa el producto hacia arriba. El producto entra por la parte inferior hasta la zona del eje de paletas. Este eje al girar impulsa el producto hacia las paredes y con ello favorece el intercambio térmico. Este sistema es muy eficaz cuando queremos obtener bajas temperaturas (estabilización tartárica). En este caso, las paletas rascadoras tienen también la misión de separar mecánicamente el hielo que el vino forma en contacto con las paredes refrigeradas y volver a ponerlo en el ciclo en forma de nieve. Existen equipos que llevan varios elementos rascadores.


- Ralentización y/o la paradas de la fermentación: Además de ser producidas por bajadas y las subidas bruscas de temperatura (±5 °C), también pueden producirse por otras causas y en muchas ocasiones representan un problema difícil de resolver. Suelen suceder cuando el azúcar residual es del orden de 10-40 g/l. Siempre están ligadas a la capacidad fermentativa de las levaduras, que puede verse afectada por la presencia de sustancias que les resultan tóxicas (residuos de pesticidas o fungicidas procedentes de tratamientos fitosanitarios, fitoalexinas, bacteriocinas, proteínas killer, exceso de acetaldehído, altas concentraciones de ácidos grasos de cadena corta como el ácido octanoico, decanoico y dodecanoico, o sus ésteres), falta de nutrientes, temperaturas de fermentación no adecuadas, cambios bruscos de temperatura, elevado grado alcohólico, exceso de S02,etc.

Para prevenir las paradas de fermentación se debe asegurar suficiente aporte nutritivo a las levaduras, para ello se deben determinar antes de la fermentación los compuestos nitrogenados, suplementándolos si es necesario con sales de amonio, levadura seca inactivada, etc. Si a pesar de ello la parada tiene lugar, podría ser de gran utilidad realizar un tratamiento adsorbente a base de 40 g/hl de cortezas de levaduras, esperar 24 horas y si no se ha normalizado la fermentación, realizar una nueva siembra de levaduras (previa adaptación de éstas al grado alcohólico del medio) con aireación y adición de sales amoniacales (10 g/hl). Las cortezas tienen el inconveniente de que empobrecen algo el vino en aromas, por lo que es imprudente su empleo como acción preventiva. Como acción correctiva también sería recomendable realizar una filtración antes de la refermentación.

- Fermentación en barricas: La mayoría de los vinos blancos secos son vinificados en recipientes metálicos. Eso presenta la ventaja de permitir un buen control de temperaturas y más facilidad de limpieza. Además de poder conseguir vinos blancos más ligeros, frescos (ácidos), en los que predominaban los aromas varietales, de poco grado, poco color y poca estructura en boca.

Sin embargo, en pequeñas producciones se mantiene el uso de vinificar vinos blancos en barrica nueva, seguida de unas semanas o meses de permanencia en madera en contacto con sus lías. Los vinos fermentados en barrica conservan las características organolépticas propias de la variedad, junto con las aportadas por la madera nueva, y las de la crianza sobre lias, que tiene lugar posteriormente a la fermentación.

Este sistema presenta algunas ventajas para elaborar vinos de crianza, menos frescos y más estructurados, porque favorece los intercambios entre las levaduras y el vino. Presenta muy buenos resultados en la elaboración de vinos procedentes de variedades poco aromáticas. Se utilizan uvas de calidad, con más grado (13-13,5º) por lo que hay que coger menos kg por Ha.

Mejora sensiblemente la calidad de los grandes vinos, especialmente enriqueciendo su potencial aromático. Sin embargo, no debe ser nunca una simple transposición de los métodos de elaboración en barrica, porque los procedimientos son diferentes.

Las barricas de 225 litros, igual que los toneles o cubas de 600 a 1.200 litros colocadas en un local templado, suponen un emplazamiento ideal para la buena marcha de la fermentación, ya que la temperatura no puede elevarse mucho debido a que la superfície de enfriamiento es grande en relación a su volumen.

La barrica es también el mejor emplazamiento en lo que concierne a la necesidad de oxigeno por las levaduras. Debe ser nueva y con ligero tostado, lo que favorece la permeabilidad al oxígeno Su aireación es siempre suficiente, bien por el orificio de la piquera o a través de la madera. En las barricas se obtienen las mayores colonias de levaduras y se alcanzan los grados alcohólicos más elevados. Al llenarlas, se suele dejar un vacío de unos 15 litros para evitar el desbordamiento de la espuma y el mosto.


En el proceso de elaboración se pueden distinguir las siguientes etapas:

- El mosto se mete desfangado a la barrica para que haga la FOH. Siempre con el objetivo de obtener un mosto lo más limpio posible (sin fangos) antes de ser introducido en la barrica.

- Lo habitual es que la fermentación se inicie en depósito e introducir el mosto en barrica en cuanto arranque la fermentación, pero también es frecuente dejar el vino en el depósito hasta una densidad próxima a 1.020, y en ese momento trasegar el vino a barrica y concluir en ella la fermentación.

- Llenado de la barrica hasta un 90% de su capacidad para evitar el desbordamiento de la espuma provocada en la fermentación. Cuando se encuentran aprox. a 1005 de densidad se rellenan para evitar oxidaciones.

- La fermentación se suele realizar a una temperatura media de 18-22 °C. A continuación de la fermentación alcohólica se produce la fermentación maloláctica. Durante la fermentación no se tapa la barrica, sólo se coloca el tapón en la boca dado la vuelta. Se realiza un control individual de cada barrica, ya que no se puede controlar la temperatura de fermentación.

- Tras la finalización de la fermentación, se puede trasegar el vino, en cuyo caso prevalecerán los aromas frutales y florales sobre los de la madera, o continuar durante un tiempo en la barrica.

- Se deja unos días para que caigan los posos y se hace un trasiego a un depósito, se sulfita, se limpian las barricas de las lías gruesas y se vuelve a meter el vino dejándose con las lías finas.

- Se hace batonnage para que no se apelmacen y no se reduzcan. En 4 meses se acaba la crianza sobre lías. Hay que estabilizarlo (clarificado, pasarlo por frío) antes de embotellarlo.

- Este tipo de blancos no es imprescindible pasarlos por frío para estabilizarlos, porque están enriquecidos en manoproteínas que evitan la precipitación de bitartratos. Estos vinos ganan con el tiempo.

- Es importante que no estén ásperos, ya que la aspereza se suma con la acidez y junto con la temperatura elevada pueden ser desagradables. Todo esto se contrasta con el dulzor, que le da el alcohol y el azúcar.

Las características de la fermentación en barrica en la elaboración de vinos blancos son:

- Condiciones favorables de temperatura y de aireación.

- Clarificación espontánea y rápida eliminación de las levaduras.

- Exige un importante trabajo manual y precisa un riguroso control individualizado. Irregularidad entre una barrica y otra en lo referente a la constitución del mosto y a la evolución de las fermentaciones.

- Bien conservados, los vinos tienen mayor longevidad que los vinos jóvenes obtenidos por fermentación tradicional.

- Los aromas primarios y secundarios de fermentación se fusionan con los aportados por la madera, conformando un sutil buqué frutal más maduro, que viene resaltado por suaves notas de vainilla, de especias y ligeramente ahumadas.

- En boca se muestran vivos, con cuerpo, grasos y con un paladar que realza los sabores más complejos.

- Los vinos adquieren una coloración más intensa hacia tonos amarillos-dorados, ofreciendo escasos reflejos verdosos.

- Puede existir peligro de pérdida de frescor y afrutado de los vinos, de contaminaciones y de envejecimiento acelerado.


- Crianza sobre lías: La crianza sobre lías suele durar de 2 a 6 meses. Durante este tiempo puede permanecer el vino estático o agitarse periódicamente mediante un bátonnage con distintas pautas establecidas en función del tipo de vino (2-3 días es una pauta habitual). Se ponen de vez en cuando en suspensión para que no se reduzcan y no generen aromas desagradables.

Este método de elaboración resulta caro porque parte de uva de gran calidad, utiliza barricas nuevas y requiere un gran trabajo manual, por lo tanto los vinos salen al mercado con un precio más elevado que los de elaboración tradicional.

Pero sus ventajas son muy numerosas, ya que desarrollan un carácter graso del vino, la untuosidad, el volumen y la expresión aromática.  Producido por la autolisis de las levaduras, que ceden glucoproteínas que seguirán degradándose en aminoácidos, que a su vez son precursores de aromas.

Se trata de un método tradicional originario del norte de Francia (Borgoña), llamado battónage y utilizado para vinos de prestigio vinificados en barricas de roble, que consiste en remover el vino desde el fondo, para poder mantener regularmente en suspensión las levaduras.

Con este método se persiguen varios fines muy específicos:

- Aumento del volumen glicérico y untuosidad en boca: Al remover las lías, las cuales están cargadas de paredes celulares de las levaduras lisadas (muertas), se consigue liberar cadenas de manosas (azúcar monosacarido) las cuales se unen a las diversas proteínas del vino, formando las manoproteinas. Este compuesto otorga un mayor volumen al vino, dotándole de mayor grasa y untuosidad.

- Mejora de la estabilidad del vino: Al combinarse con las proteínas del vino, este mejora su estabilidad frente a posibles precipitaciones, sobretodo la quiebra proteica. Liberando al vino de posibles alteraciones, tales como el enturbiamiento del vino.

- Mejora aptitud de crianza en barrica: La mayor estructuración del vino unido a un consumo de oxígeno por parte de las lías favorece un envejecimiento más lento y progresivo, protegiendo al vino blanco de una oxidación indeseable y maderización prematura. Este fenómeno de crianza bajo lías también es muy estudiado en los vinos tintos, aunque generalmente se suele hacer una crianza oxidativa, sin o con battonage, en lo que numerosas investigaciones hacen referencia al consumo de oxígeno disuelto del vino,  por parte de las lías, y su interferencia en el color del vino, ya que se estima que pueden provocar una perdida de color de los mismos.

- Fermentación Maloláctica (FML):

La fermentación maloláctica no se busca sistemáticamente y muchos vinos blancos toleran bien una pequeña nota ácida que valora su frescor. Pero hay veces que si la acidez es alta hay que hacerla, si no del todo, sí parcialmente. En Francia y norte de Europa es habitual que la hagan.

Por otra parte, esta segunda fermentación está mal dirigida, podría rebajar los aromas primarios. Sin embargo, no presenta grandes inconvenientes cuando se trata de los grandes vinos elaborados en barrica y aumenta la amplitud en boca.

Turismo del Vino y Visitas a Bodegas Urbina en La Rioja (España)

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TURISMO DEL VINO Y VISITAS A BODEGAS URBINA EN LA RIOJA (ESPAÑA)

Conocer las historias que se esconden detrás de una bodega y disfrutar de ese recorrido con una agradable copa de vino en la mano sin tener que conducir. Es sin duda alguna una gran propuesta para cualquier amante del vino, la gastromia, la cultura y la aventura.

Esta iniciativa, ofrecida por (www.traveloja.com), propone visitar bodegas (modernas, centenarias, y de autor), restaurantes, pueblos emblemáticos, hoteles con encanto, casas rurales románticas, y mucho más. Pero todo ello sin la necesidad de tener que coger tú coche, con lo que se consigue que el vino y la carretera compongan un perfecto maridaje. Se trata de una agencia joven que te asesorara y trasladara en una furgoneta de aproximadamente 8 plazas, a todas las actividades que quieras realizar.

La actividad se puede realizar de forma individual, en grupo o en pareja, adaptada a cualquier edad y procedencia. El objetivo es pasar un día único donde conocer personas y escenarios diferentes a los habituales, mientras se disfruta de los mejores vinos y gastronomía local.


Esta iniciativa de turismo rural y enológico también se puede compaginar con una amplia gama de actividades diferentes:
- Enológico: Ruta de Bodegas; Curso de iniciación a la cata.
- Gastronomico: Gastronomía; Ruta de vinos y pinchos; Cata en calle Laurel; Ejercicios de maridajes.
- Deporte: Excursiones; Senderismo; Carrera de Orientación; Paintball; Kayak; Paseos a caballo o bicicleta; Quads; Tiro con arco; Vuelos en avioneta o en globo.
- Salud y Belleza: Spas; Gimnasios; Vinoterapia.
- Cultural y artístico: Ruta fotográfica; Excursión cultural; Ruta de los monasterios; Ruta medieval; Ruta del románico; Visita a pueblos emblemáticos.

- Nombre: Traveloja
- Dirección: Calle las Eras, 12, 26213 Leiva, La Rioja
- Web: www.traveloja.com / www.inifernandez.com
- Email: info@traveloja.com
- Teléfono: +34 619 11 53 354


VISITA BODEGAS URBINA

Bodegas Urbina esta situada en un bonito pueblo medieval llamado "Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón", además de ser una afamada zona vinícola situada en la subzona de La Rioja Alta. Disfruta de su casco antiguo y déjate perder por sus estrechas calles.

Cuzcurrita, en la Edad Media, fue plaza fuerte y la villa estaba amurallada, además de tener un castillo con extramuros que fue construido a finales del siglo XV.

La Iglesia de San Miguel, situada en la Plaza Mayor, también es una visita obligatoria. Fue construida en el siglo XVIII en estilo barroco riojano, dándose por terminada en 1805. Fue declarada "Bien de Interés Cultural" en la categoría de Monumento en 1978. También se pueden visitar dos ermitas, una de estilo románico y otra de estilo barroco.


Visitar Bodegas Urbina es una experiencia muy especial y diferente. En la que uno puede sentirse como un autentico bodeguero riojano durante un día, aprendiendo de la mano de auténticos profesionales, las diferentes actividades propias de un viticultor y un enólogo.

Caminar entre viñedos es fundamental para poder sentir y entender, lo qué es importante para que la uva se convierta en buen vino. Aprender las diferentes actividades que son necesarias realizar en cada momento del año (poda, poda en verde, deshojado, control de la maduración de la uva, vendimia…). Además de ser un lugar perfecto para disfrutar de los vinos y la naturaleza.

En la sala de catas de la bodega podrás catar vinos jóvenes, otros con diferentes tiempos de estancia en barrica y botella para poder entender las diferencias en su evolución y muchas otras cosas.


- Bodega Familiar: Urbina es una Bodega exclusivamente Familiar de Rioja, propietarios de sus propios viñedos y herederos de la experiencia de cuatro generaciones de antepasados dedicadas al cultivo y elaboración de vinos, que son una expresión liquida del lugar del que proceden. Esta bodega también se caracteriza por el perfecto ensamblaje entre la juventud del equipo y la experiencia de sus generaciones precedentes.

- Viñedos. Los viñedos de Bodegas Urbina tienen entre 25 y 40 años mayoritariamente con excepciones de incluso 80 años de antigüedad. En su conjunto suman unas 75 hectáreas aproximadamente.

Los vinos de Bodegas Urbina son una conjunción de uvas procedentes de Cuzcurrita, la zona más occidental de la Rioja Alta, que produce vinos con una gran capacidad de envejecimiento, aptos para los Grandes Reservas y de los viñedos de Uruñuela, situados en el corazón de la denominación, y que producen vinos muy agradables y aromáticos en su juventud.

Sólo se usan viñedos propios y donde todo se hace de la forma más ecológica y sosteniblemente posible. La vendimia se acostumbra a hacer a finales de septiembre o principios de octubre, dependiendo del clima del año en particular.


- Vinos: A estos jóvenes bodegueros les gusta elaborar vinos peculiares, honestos, de gran calidad y con mucha personalidad que realmente reflejen el lugar del que proceden. Utilizando una viticultura y enología respetuosa con el medio ambiente, pero aprovechando también los avances de las nuevas tecnologías. Para de esta forma poder sentir el perfecto ensamblaje entre la viña y el vino (vinos de pago o terroir, producciones pequeñas, hechas exclusivamente con las variedades autóctonas de la D.O.Ca. Rioja).

En la Cata se degustan y comentan todos los vinos de la Bodega:
- Vinos jóvenes: blanco, rosado, garnacha (maceración carbónica), tempranillo (joven, cosechero, vino del año).
- Vinos clásicos o tradicionales: crianza, reserva, gran reserva.
- Vinos modernos, de autor, de diseño, o de alta expresión: tinto especial (vendimia tardía o uvas pasificadas), plot.


Durante la visita a la bodega y cata de vinos, el deseo de esta familia, es el compartir con los amantes del vino la pasión de un estilo de vida, la emoción de un viñedo y el prestigio de una cultura milenaria.

- Nombre: Bodegas Urbina
- Actividades: Visitas a bodega, Enoturismo, Catas Comentadas, Cursos de Cata y Rutas del Vino.
- Dirección: c/ Campillo 33-35. 26214 Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón. La Rioja (España)
- Teléfono: 647 643 651 / 941 22 42 72
- Email: urbina@fer.es
- Web: www.urbinavinos.com


TRADICIONAL ALMUERZO RIOJANO

Traveloja te ayudara a disfrutar de la mejor gastronomía riojana, y que mejor forma que degustar un tradicional almuerzo riojano, dentro de una autentica bodega subterránea del siglo XVII, ya que en aquel entonces se cavaban cuevas o calados en la montañas para conseguir la frescura y unas mejores elaboraciones.

El plato más típico de La Rioja son las chuletillas al sarmiento (también denominadas chuletas al sarmiento) son un plato asado típico de La Rioja, cuyo ingrediente principal son las chuletas (denominadas en otras partes de España como costillas) de cordero. Suele ser parte fundamental de cualquier celebración de esta comunidad, y difícil de ver fuera de la misma.

Como ingredientes, se suelen emplear unas chuletillas de cordero y con la simple añadidura de sal (preferentemente sal gorda) se procede a asar. La dificultad de encontrar este plato en cualquier restaurante estriba en su modo de elaboración, ya que se requiere un espacio al aire libre, o en su defecto una chimenea.


Se prepara un fuego con una gavilla de sarmientos (un atajo de ramas de vid secas), dejándola reducir hasta las brasas. Antes de que eso ocurra, se coloca la parrilla al fuego para limpiarla, una vez quemada, con papel de periódico, eliminando los restos de su anterior uso. Cuando los sarmientos se han convertido en brasas, se colocan las chuletillas en la parrilla, se salan, y se colocan sobre las brasas. Cuando se vea que están hechas por un lado, se da la vuelta a la parrilla y se termina su cocción. En ocasiones se riega con un chorro de vino de Rioja poco antes de sacarlas de las brasas.

Dada la complejidad de su elaboración, es un plato que se disfruta principalmente en las reuniones de amigos en bodegas o merenderos, siendo muy pocos los restaurantes de la comunidad autónoma que pueden incluirlo en su carta. Tradicionalmente, en las Fiestas de la Vendimia de Logroño, se celebra el denominado Festival de la chuleta al sarmiento, heredero de otro que se realizaba en la ciudad en los años 70 en una céntrica calle, en el cual cuadrillas de jóvenes competían en comer la mayor cantidad posible.


GASRONOMÍA RIOJANA

La Rioja fue galardonada como la primera capital española de la gastronomía, un reconocimiento por su gran calidad así como por su creatividad.

Destacar que la gastronomía de La Rioja es el conjunto de procesos culinarios y de productos que se encuentran en La Rioja, aunque se trata de una región que posee más ingredientes característicos que platos y preparaciones.

La denominación 'a la riojana' que poseen muchos de sus platos proviene del empleo abundante del pimiento abundante en sus huertas, o de algunos de sus derivados como se trata del pimentón.

Entre las preparaciones más emblemáticas de la comunidad se tienen las chuletas al sarmiento (un asado típico). El empleo de sarmientos procedentes de la vid es muy popular en la generación de brasas para la realización de asados.

Se tienen igualmente preparaciones como los caparrones de Anguiano (caparrones “coloraos"), las pochas a la riojana, La menestra de verduras, los pimientos rellenos y las patatas con chorizo o patatas a la riojana.

En la repostería (denominada en la región golmajería) se tiene muy presente la almendra fruto muy abundante en la región. Sobre todo en la zona de la Rioja Baja.


TURISMO DEL VINO Y GASTRONOMIA

El vino español es de los mejores del mundo. Y es, además, el complemento perfecto para nuestras gastronomía, también de las más admiradas en todo el planeta. Por ello, la combinación de vino y comida española se ha convertido en un motor turístico muy importante. De hecho, las experiencias culinarias y vitícolas son un factor determinante de la elección del destino para un número creciente de turistas de ocio.

Según datos de la Asociación Española de Ciudades del Vino (Acevin):

- Los turistas que visitaron en 2013 el país motivados solo por el vino fueron 1,7 millones y por la gastronomía y el vino, unos seis millones.

- El volumen económico de las visitas turísticas a bodegas y museos del vino en España en 2015 genero más de 42,5 millones de euros gracias al incremento de más de un 25% del número de visitantes con respecto al año 2014.


- El precio medio de la visita estándar a bodegas (visita guiada + degustación) es de 6,90 euros y el gasto medio por visitante a bodega (excluyendo el precio de entrada, es decir lo gastado en tienda) es de 15,95 euros.

- En el caso de los museos del vino, el precio medio de la visita estándar es de 3,45 euros y el gasto medio por visitante a museos es de 2,96 euros.

- Multiplicando estos valores por los 2,1 millones de visitantes registrados (un 82,83% son visitantes de bodegas y un 17,17% son visitantes a museos), el informe revela un volumen de negocio total de 42,5 millones de euros.

- Una cifra muy importante aun sin incluir el volumen de negocio generado, además, por otros establecimientos que también forman parte de las Rutas y de los viajes enoturísticos como alojamientos o restaurantes.


- En cuanto al perfil del turista, son personas jóvenes, con perfil universitario y una renta alta que no escatiman en gasto. Esto podría sorprender a muchos, pero los turistas del vino son más jóvenes, más asiduos y con un mayor nivel cultural que los turistas que no practican el enoturismo. Es evidente que suelen estar motivados por experiencias únicas, reforzando las ventajas de centrarse en los elementos culturales y medioambientales individuales de un destino.

De esta forma el enoturismo, trae consigo importantes beneficios para las diferentes regiones españolas, en el aspecto económico y social principalmente. Reactivando la economía de la zona, especialmente en zonas rurales que presentaban problemas de emigración relacionados con el aspecto económico y laboral. Por ello, son  muchas las comarcas rurales que están apostando en las últimas décadas por considerar a estas actividades entre sus estrategias de desarrollo socioeconómico.


- En cuanto a la distribución temporal a lo largo del año, otoño y primavera vuelven a ser las temporadas preferidas para realizar enoturismo, al ofrecer unas temperaturas más adecuadas para el disfrute del producto enoturístico y en el caso del otoño, por la realización de la vendimia en la mayor parte de las rutas, convirtiéndose en un factor adicional de atracción.

Los meses de octubre (255.395 visitas) y septiembre (237.558 visitas) son los más fructíferos en la llegada de visitantes, seguidos muy de cerca de mayo (218.980 visitas) y abril (202.761 visitas), un mes este último que vuelve a recuperar el cuarto puesto tras ser desbancado durante el año anterior por el mes de junio. Los meses estivales (junio, julio y agosto) registran, igualmente, cifras muy positivas y considerablemente superiores a los años precedentes, superando en los tres meses los 168.000 visitantes.


El Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y comercio creo una nueva campaña de publicad basada en las anteriores de "Visit Spain" enfocada a los diferentes territorios vitivinícolas del país con una propuesta denominada “España, país de Vino” que haga como principal motivo de desplazamiento el vino y no en un plano secundario.

Dicha campaña consta de diferentes territorios específicos y relacionados con el vino donde se resalta los aspectos más característicos de cada comunidad para que de ese modo los turistas extranjeros organicen su vista de forma concreta sabiendo las zonas en la que se encuentra del país y los diferentes vinos que se oferta en dicha zona.


El turista descubre y disfrutar de la experiencia que proporcionan los diferentes procesos de elaboración del vino y sus paisajes. En la degustación de los mismos, se puede llegar a comprender las diferencias entre los diferentes tipos de vino, sus aromas, sus sabores, entendiendo mejor el entorno vitivinícola, y además de brindar la oportunidad de conocer en mayor profundidad las tradiciones y la cultura vinculadas a la vinificación y la vida en el campo.

Aunque el vino es el foco de atención principal, el enoturismo también ofrece a los turistas la posibilidad de descubrir zonas rurales y sus entornos naturales, de probar otros productos agrícolas, como el aceite de oliva, y de degustar una amplia gama de alimentos y especialidades gastronómicas locales, tendiendo puentes entre los espacios urbanos y las zonas rurales. También se relaciona con el turismo cultural (arquitectura, arte) y de la salud-belleza (vinoterapia).


Está claro que los viajeros demandan nuevos tipos de recursos turísticos que les permita la búsqueda de una experiencia diferente. Fruto de todos estos  cambios, aparecen productos temáticos y singulares entre los cuales destaca todo lo  relacionado con la recuperación de la herencia ambiental, cultural y social de determinadas zonas geográficas. Así, en los últimos años se está produciendo una apuesta decidida por todo lo asociado con la revalorización de los sentidos y, en este sentido, la gastronomía y el vino, como reflejo de esta experiencia sensorial y cultural, está adquiriendo una gran importancia.

En este sentido, el vino por ejemplo refleja la historia social, cultural y ambiental de los pueblos, es decir, la propia idiosincrasia de sus habitantes, llegando incluso a definirse de forma más amplia a toda esta oferta como “el paisaje del vino”. La gastronomía y el vino han pasado de estar en segundo plano a primero en muchas de las ofertas de atracción turística.


TURISMO GASTRONÓMICO

El turismo gastronómico está experimentando un crecimiento muy importante tanto en España como a nivel internacional. Lo que antes era considerado como un producto turístico complementario, está transformándose en uno de los máximos potenciales y principal reclamo de muchos destinos.

El impresionante boom que vive este tipo de turismo desde hace ya unos años ha obligado al sector a definir qué se entiende por Turismo Gastronómico. Se puede definir el Turismo Gastronómico como "la visita a productores primarios y secundarios de alimentos, festivales gastronómicos, restaurantes y lugares específicos donde la degustación de platos y/ o la experimentación de los atributos de una región especializada en la producción de alimentos es la razón principal para la realización del viaje".


En los últimos años, la demanda de este tipo de turismo en España ha aumentado significativamente. En este sentido, según datos del Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Turismo, la cocina y los vinos españoles son una motivación de viaje para el 10% de los turistas recibe España. Esto sin tener en cuenta el turismo interior que es, en gran parte, el principal consumidor de turismo gastronómico del país: más de la mitad de los españoles afirman que la gastronomía y el vino influyen de forma importante a la hora de elegir donde viajar y el 70% de este grupo afirma haber realizado algún viaje motivado, exclusivamente, por la gastronomía. Esto se traduce en un mercado potencial de más de 10 millones de españoles.

Las personas que viajan motivadas por la gastronomía del destino forman parte de un segmento de mercado muy específico (aunque, como hemos visto, cada vez mayor). Es por esto, que su perfil difiere ligeramente del que tiene un viajero con unas motivaciones menos concretas y más convencionales.


El cliente de turismo gastronómico puede caracterizarse de la siguiente forma:
- En mayor medida, son los hombres los que realizan este tipo de viajes.
- Su nivel de ingresos se puede categorizar como medio-alto, igual que sus niveles de estudios.
- Se alojan en hoteles de 4 y 5 estrellas mayoritariamente.
- La estancia media de este tipo de turistas al destino no llega a los 5 días (concretamente: 4,68 días).
- Tiene unos niveles de gasto superiores a los del turista convencional: de media, su gasto diario por persona es de 163€ (incluyendo el alojamiento y la restauración).
- Acostumbran a complementar sus viajes con otras actividades, la mayoría relacionadas con su motivación principal: compra de productos gastronómicos y vinos, visita a bodegas, catas y degustaciones, participación en eventos gastronómicos aunque también actividades relacionadas con el patrimonio natural y cultural del destino que visitan.


El creciente interés en la gastronomía ha puesto de moda algunos términos que, si bien existían desde hace años, nunca se habían popularizado. Es el caso del Slow Food.

Según la filosofía y la cultura Slow Food, la alimentación debe ser buena, limpia y justa. Los alimentos deben tener buen gusto, deben ser producidos sin dañar el ambiente, las especies animales y nuestra salud, y los productores deben ser retribuidos justamente.

Más recientemente y vinculado al Slow Food aparece el concepto de la Cocina Kilómetro 0. Este tipo de cocina tiene como premisas básicas: Que los alimentos utilizados sean comprados directamente a los productores en un radio inferior a 100 kilómetros, que los productos sean principalmente ecológicos y cuenten con la correspondiente certificación que lo acredita, entre otras.


Este concepto de Kilómetro 0 ha despertado mucho interés entre restaurantes, chefs y cocineros de todos los niveles, lo que ha llevado a establecer criterios para que un plato sea considerado “kilómetro 0”:

- Que un 40 % de los ingredientes sean locales, incluyendo el ingrediente principal. Esto implica que el restaurante los compre directamente al productor, y éste los haya producido a menos de 100 kilómetros.

- Que pertenezcan al Arca del Gusto, bien sean Baluartes o un 60 % de los ingredientes sean lo más cercanos posible y que los que no lo sean, tengan certificación ecológica. Al menos en las cartas habrá 5 productos del Arca del Gusto, próximos al restaurante (o que pertenezcan al Arca del Gusto, en general).

- Ningún plato podrá tener alimentos transgénicos o animales que hayan comido transgénicos.


No únicamente los platos sino también los restaurantes pueden conseguir el distintivo de “Kilómetro 0”. Deben cumplir los siguientes criterios:

- Debe tener, por lo menos, 5 platos “kilómetro 0” durante todo el año. Estos platos pueden estar distribuidos en la carta, en un menú, en recomendaciones, sugerencias, etc.

- Durante todo el año el restaurante deberá comprar, como mínimo cinco productos del Arca del Gusto de Slow Food, de forma constante y mediante la presentación de facturas, acreditará su uso cotidiano.

- Deberá comprar, como mínimo, a cinco productores de tipología diferente, que estén establecidos a menos de 100 km del restaurante. Como mínimo, uno de éstos deberá producir verduras.

- El restaurante entregará al convivium de Slow Food más cercano, la ficha de datos, en el plazo requerido por Slow Food España.

- El restaurante que presente su candidatura por primera vez deberá acreditar el cumplimiento de los requisitos de este documento, como mínimo tres meses antes de la entrega de la ficha de datos.


Como hemos visto, el Turismo Gastronómico es un modelo que puede aportar grandes beneficios a los destinos turísticos.

Por una parte, disponer de una oferta culinaria estructurada, puede convertirse en herramienta clave para transmitir sensaciones y generar experiencias a los consumidores, lo que responde perfectamente a las nuevas tendencias de la demanda global del sector turístico.

Por otra parte, este tipo de turismo actúa como desestacionalizador de la demanda turística, siendo un producto singular y con un elevado componente cultural, movilizando una tipología de clientes muy interesante para el destino.

Introducción al Analisis Enológico

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INTRODUCCIÓN AL ANALISIS ENOLÓGICO

Hay que tener en cuenta que el trabajo de laboratorio pertenece a una actividad cuyos resultados deben ser contrastados y verificados. Por tanto, resulta de capital importancia: La calibración y el conocimiento de la composición química y evolución del vino.


FORMULACIÓN Y NOMENCLATURA

Las fórmulas químicas expresan la composición de las moléculas y de los compuestos iónicos por medio de símbolos químicos. Al decir composición, entendemos que nos indican los elementos químicos presentes y también la proporción en la cual se combinan sus átomos.

Hay tres tipos de fórmulas:

- Fórmula Molecular: Indica el número de exacto de átomos de cada elemento que están presentes en la unidad más pequeña de una sustancia. Por ejemplo la fórmula del agua oxigenada es H2O2, que nos indica que en una molécula hay dos átomos de Hidrógeno y dos átomos de Oxígeno.

- Fórmula Empírica: Indica que elementos están presentes y la relación mínima entre sus átomos expresada en números enteros. Por ejemplo la fórmula empírica del agua oxigenada es HO. En muchos casos coincidirán la fórmula empírica y la molecular, como en el agua H2O o el dióxido de Carbono CO2.

- Fórmula Estructural: Indica el modo en el que los átomos están unidos entre si y su posición en el espacio. Por ejemplo el agua oxigenada tiene una fórmula estructural H-O-O-H

Entendemos por formular, escribir la composición de una molécula de cualquier compuesto químico (NaCl o CaO) y nombrar o nomenclatura, es asignar el nombre correcto a la fórmula de un compuesto químico (NaCl: Cloruro de Sodio, CaO: Óxido de Calcio).

En esta pagina web se puede encontrar bastante información asociada a cada elemento (www.ptable.com).


SISTEMAS DE FORMULACIÓN


Para poder formular es conveniente conozcer conceptos como:

- Valencia: Es la capacidad que tiene un átomo para combinarse con otros y nos indica el número de uniones simultáneas que un átomo es capaz de formar con otros átomos. Por ejemplo, en la molécula de agua, la valencia del oxígeno es 2, ya que forma dos uniones o enlaces con 2 átomos de Hidrógeno.

- Número de Oxidación: Es la carga eléctrica que tendría un átomo de un elemento en un compuesto si todas las uniones que lo forman fueran iónicas.

Clases de nomenclaturas:

- Tradicional o Funcional: Recibe este nombre por fundamentar la identificación de los compuestos en la función
química que los constituye. Tiende a desaparecer.

- Sistemática: Recomendada por la IUPAC Reconoce las sustancias indicando la proporción de cada uno de sus constituyentes. Las diferencias que existan entre dos compuestos cuyos componentes sean monoatómicos, las refleja por el número de átomos que los constituyen. Para ello usa los prefijos mono, di, tri,… El prefijo mono se
suele omitir, salvo casos excepcionales.

- Stock: Indica el nombre genérico del compuesto, a continuación el nombre del elemento que lo forma y, por último, la valencia de este expresada en números romanos y encerrada entre paréntesis.


MEZCLAS Y DISOLUCIONES

Una dispersión es una mezcla de dos o más sustancias en la que las partículas de una se hallan distribuidas en el seno de la otra. La primera se llama fase dispersa y la segunda fase dispersante.

El tamaño de la fase dispersa puede variar entre límites bastante amplios: Desde el tamaño de un grano de arena hasta el tamaño molecular. Según este tamaño de las partículas podemos clasificar a las dispersiones en:

- Suspensiones: El tamaño de las partículas de la fase dispersa es superior a 1 micrómetro (μm). Estas partículas son visibles con una lupa o con un microscopio óptico y a veces a simple vista, si se dejan en reposo sedimentan, no atraviesan los poros del papel de filtro ordinario, por tanto pueden separarse por filtración. Ejemplo: el agua turbia.

- Disoluciones Coloidales o Coloides: El tamaño de las partículas dispersas oscila entre 0,1 μm y 0,001 μm(clara de huevo en agua al agitar fuertemente). Las partículas coloidales no sedimentan, atraviesan los filtros ordinarios. No son visibles al microscopio óptico, pero sí con microscopio electrónico. El humo es una dispersión coloidal de un sólido en un gas.

- Disoluciones Verdaderas: El tamaño de las partículas dispersas en una disolución verdadera es inferior a 0,001 μm, se trata de moléculas o de iones. No son visibles por ningún medio ni son separables por filtración. Por ejemplo una disolución de azúcar en agua. A la fase dispersa se le denomina soluto y a la fase dispersante disolvente. A veces resulta difícil distinguir entre uno y otro, por ejemplo en una disolución de agua y etanol a partes iguales. En una disolución de un sólido en un líquido, al sólido se le considera el soluto. En las disoluciones de líquidos y gases el disolvente es el componente que se encuentra en mayor proporción.

También se diferencian las disoluciones por la cantidad de soluto presente en la disolución:
- Diluida: Si la proporción de soluto respecto al disolvente es pequeña.
- Concentrada: Si la proporción de soluto a disolvente es grande.
- Saturada: Cuando la disolución contiene la máxima cantidad posible de soluto, para una temperatura dada.
- Sobresaturada: Si contiene más cantidad de soluto que la que admite el disolvente. Estas disoluciones no son estables y basta que haya una alteración de las condiciones externas, para que parte del soluto se separe de la disolución en forma de sólido.


CONCENTRACIÓN DE LAS DISOLUCIONES EXPRESADA EN UNIDADES FÍSICAS

Si la concentración de una disolución es la cantidad de soluto que se ha disuelto en una cantidad determinada de disolvente o de disolución, veamos las diferentes formas de expresarla.

Expresión de la concentración en unidades físicas:

1.- Porcentaje en peso (% p/p)(% m/m)


2.- Porcentaje en volumen (% v/v)


3.- Porcentaje en masa/volumen (% m/v)



Siendo mL =  mililitros y g = gramos.

4.- Partes por millón (ppm)

Expresa los gramos de sustancia por millón de gramos de disolución. Dado que la densidad de una disolución acuosa diluida es próxima a 1,00 gramo/mililitro, se suele equiparar 1gramo de agua con 1 mililitro de agua,(aunque esta equivalencia es sólo una aproximación). Por tanto 1 ppm equivale a 1miligramo/Litro.


Para disoluciones acuosas siendo mg = miligramos y L = litros

5.- Partes por billón (1) (ppb)


Para disoluciones acuosas siendo μg= microgramo

(1) Se acepta la denominación de partes por billón, aunque se refiere a un billón americano (mil millones) y no a un billón español (un millón de millones).


CONCENTRACIÓN DE LAS DISOLUCIONES EXPRESADA EN UNIDADES QUÍMICAS

1.- Molaridad (M): Muchas veces, para abreviar, la concentración molar de un compuesto A se suele representar mediante la fórmula del compuesto A encerrado entre corchetes: . Por ejemplo, una expresión del tipo = 2 mol/L, se leería como "la concentración molar de ácido clorhídrico es igual a 2 mol/L".


2.- Normalidad (N): El número de equivalentes de una sustancia se obtiene dividiendo su masa entre el peso equivalente. El peso equivalente (en lo sucesivo PE) de un ión o de un elemento es igual a la masa molar (M) dividido por la valencia. El de un ácido o de una base es igual a la masa molar dividida por el número de iones H+ o de iones hidroxilo que se pueden sustituir. En una sustancia que se reduce o se oxida, el peso equivalente es igual a la masa molar dividida por el número de electrones captados o cedidos.


donde L= litros

3.- Molalidad (m)


4.- Fracción molar (X)


REACCIONES QUÍMICAS

Reacción química, se define como un proceso en el que una o más sustancias, denominadas reactivos, cambian para formar una o más sustancias nuevas, denominadas productos.

Una ecuación química es la representación de una reacción, utilizando símbolos químicos para mostrar que sucede durante la misma.

En el primer miembro debes escribir las fórmulas de las sustancias que reaccionan (reactivos), y en el segundo miembro se escriben las fórmulas de las sustancias que se forman (productos), separados por una flecha, si la reacción es irreversible o por dos (una para cada sentido), si la reacción es reversible.

Además de las fórmulas de las sustancias, deben aparecer los coeficientes estequiométricos, que nos indican el número de moles de cada sustancia que intervienen en la reacción.

aB + bB ≤ = ≥ cC+dD

Esta ecuación se leerá: A moles de la sustancia A reaccionan con b moles de la sustancia B para dar c moles de la sustancia C y d moles de la sustancia D.


Si aplicas la ley de conservación de la masa (Lavoisier) en una reacción, la suma de las masas de los reactivos ha de ser igual a la suma de las masas de los productos. Esto viene a significar que en el transcurso de una reacción química los átomos ni se crean ni se destruyen, simplemente se reagrupan.

Para que esto se cumpla es necesario que el número de átomos de cada elemento de los reactivos sea igual al número de átomos de cada elemento en los productos.


Cuando una ecuación cumple la ley de conservación de la masa, se dice que está "igualada" o "ajustada".

Por ejemplo, la reacción representada por la ecuación:


Nos indica cualitativamente el proceso químico, pero no cumple con la ley de conservación de la masa. La ecuación ajustada sería así:


ESTEQUIOMETRÍA DE LAS REACCIONES

Estequiometría es el estudio cuantitativo de los reactivos y productos, que intervienen en una reacción química.

Es importante recuerdar el significado de los conceptos de mol y masa molar.

Una ecuación química es la representación de una reacción que una vez ajustada, nos da información:

- Cualitativa: Que sustancias reaccionan y que sustancias se producen.

- Cuantitativa: Que cantidad de reactivos participa en la reacción y que cantidad de productos se
consiguen.

Ejemplos:


Podemos leer la ecuación diciendo que "un mol de Carbono se combina con un mol de Oxígeno, para dar un mol de dióxido de Carbono".

Pero también la podemos leer diciendo que "12 gramos de Carbono se combinan con 32 gramos de oxígeno para dar 44 gramos de Dióxido de Carbono".


"2 moles de Monóxido de Carbono reaccionan con un mol de oxígeno para dar dos moles de Dióxido de Carbono", o que "2 x 28 gramos de Monóxido de Carbono reaccionan con 32 gramos de oxígeno para dar 2 x 44 gramos de Dióxido de Carbono".

1 mol de CO: 28 g / 1 mol de O2: 32 g / 1 mol de CO2: 44 g


REACTIVO LIMITANTE

Si hacemos reaccionar los reactivos en cantidades que no sean las que nos indica la lectura de la ecuación química. Sucederia que alguno de ellos no reaccionaria en su totalidad. Ejemplo:

Supón que ponemos en contacto 35 gramos de CO con 50 gramos de O2. ¿Qué cantidad de reactivo quedaría sin reaccionar? ¿Cuánto CO2 se formaría?

2CO + O2 => 2CO2

La ecuación ajustada nos informa que 56 gramos (2 x 28 g) de CO se combinan con 32 gramos de O2 para dar 88 gramos de CO2(2 x 44 g).

35 g CO reaccionarán con 20 g de Oxígeno y se formarán 55 g de CO2. Por lo tanto, tenemos 30 g de oxígeno en exceso.

En este ejemplo el monóxido de Carbono (CO) se dice que actúa como reactivo limitante, ya que es quién limita la cantidad de Oxígeno que puede reaccionar y la cantidad de CO2 que se va a formar. El Oxígeno (O2) se dice que actúa como reactivo en exceso.



REACTIVOS PUROS E IMPUROS

El que los reactivos presentes en las reacciones químicas correspondan siempre a sustancias puras, es circunstancia poco frecuente en la realidad. Por regla general, todas las sustancias presentan un cierto número de impurezas. Por tanto, a la hora de resolver un caso práctico aplicando los cálculos estequiométricos convenientes, nunca debemos de tomar la cantidad total de muestra que se da (a no ser que su pureza sea 100%), sino la parte que corresponde al reactivo puro.

Así, por ejemplo, si te dicen que tienes una muestra de cal viva de 250 g cuya riqueza en Óxido de Calcio (CaO) es del 80%, has de considerar que la cantidad real de Óxido de Calcio no es 250 gramos sino 200 gramos.

Ejemplo: Supongamos que tienemos 500 gramos de una cal comercial con una riqueza del 80% de Óxido de Calcio (CaO). Con el fin de usarla en la viña la apagas con agua, formándose "Cal apagada" (Ca(OH)2). ¿Cuánta cal apagada se ha conseguido?


TIPOS DE REACCIONES

Según su velocidad de reacción:
- Lentas (oxidación del hierro en el aire).
- Rápidas (combustión de la pólvora).

Según la energía del proceso:
- Exotérmicas: Si se llevan a cabo con una liberación de energía, normalmente en forma de calor. La combustión del carbón o la gasolina son un ejemplo de
este tipo de reacciones
- Endotérmicas: Si el proceso requiere, para su realización, un aporte de energía, suministrada generalmente en forma de calor.

Atendiendo a la estabilidad de los productos:
Existen reacciones en las que los productos obtenidos son tan estables, que prácticamente son incapaces de volver a reaccionar entre sí para regenerar las sustancias iniciales. Esto sucede, por ejemplo, cuando reacciona el nitrato de plata con el cloruro de sodio:


En este caso la reacción se denomina irreversible ya que se forma un compuesto sólido y precipita. En cambio, existen procesos en los que los productos obtenidos son capaces de volver a reaccionar entre sí para regenerar las sustancias reaccionantes. Así, en la síntesis del amoníaco, éste puede descomponerse volviendo a producir hidrógeno y nitrógeno:


En este caso se dice que la reacción es reversible. Cuando en una reacción se forman gases o sólidos, es difícil que sean reversibles. Pero podemos utilizar otros criterios para clasificar las reacciones, como los que se exponen a continuación.

En este caso se dice que la reacción es reversible. Cuando en una reacción se forman gases o sólidos, es difícil que sean reversibles. Pero podemos utilizar otros criterios para clasificar las reacciones, como los que se exponen a continuación.

CLASIFICACIÓN SEGÚN LAS AGRUPACIONES DE ÁTOMOS DE LOS REACTIVOS Y LOS PRODUCTOS

a. Reacciones de combinación, síntesis o adición: Dos o más sustancias reaccionan para dar otra sustancia más. Responden al proceso general dado por la ecuación: A+B → A+B que comprende:
- Obtención de una sustancia compuesta a partir de los elementos químicos que la constituyen (síntesis del agua).
- Obtención de una sustancia compuesta a partir de dos o más sustancias compuestas más sencillas. Por ejemplo: CaO+H2O → Ca(OH)2

b. Reacciones de descomposición: Responden al proceso general dado por la ecuación: AB → A + B que comprende:
- Descomposición de una sustancia en los elementos químicos que la forman. 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
- Descomposición de una sustancia compuesta en otra compuesta más sencilla y otra simple, o en dos o más sustancias compuestas muy sencillas. NH4Cl → HCl+NH3

c. Reacciones de desplazamiento o sustitución: Tienen lugar cuando una sustancia compuesta reacciona con una simple y ésta desplaza o sustituye a uno de los elementos que forman la molécula del compuesto, que queda libre.

La reacción general sería:

AB + C → AC+B

Un ejemplo es la reacción de un ácido con un metal para formar la sal correspondiente y liberar hidrógeno:

ZN + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Cuando existe un doble desplazamiento, también se denominan reacciones de intercambio.

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → 2 NaCl + BaSO4

REACCIONES DE NEUTRALIZACIÓN

Entendemos por reacciones de neutralización, aquellas en las que un ácido o un ión ácido reacciona con una base o un ión básico para dar una sal y si transcurren en medio acuoso, generalmente agua.

Como los óxidos no metálicos en solución acuosa se transforman en ácidos y los óxidos metálicos en solución acuosa se transforman en bases, también pueden intervenir en reacciones de neutralización.

Ácido + Base <==> Sal + Agua
HCl(ac) + NaOH(ac) <==> NaCl(ac) + H2O(l)
Óxido metálico (Básico) + Ácido <==> Sal + Agua
MgO(s) + 2HCl(ac) <==> MgCl2(ac) + H2O(l)
Óxido de Metal + Óxido de No Metal <==> Sal
MgO(s) + SO3 (g) <==> MgSO 4(s)

La neutralización, realmente, se produce en la reacción H+ + OH- <==> H2O, ya que el resto de los iones actúan como "espectadores", pues no intervienen.

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- <==> Na+ + Cl- + H

Por ello podemos escribir la reacción como:

H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- < == > Na+ + Cl- + H2O

Las reacciones de neutralización son el fundamento de algunas determinaciones en enología como acidez total o volátil.

El pH del punto final de una reacción de neutralización dependerá de la fuerza de los ácidos y bases que reaccionan.

LA LLUVIA ÁCIDA

La lluvia ácida se forma cuando la humedad en el aire se combina con los óxidos de nitrógeno, el dióxido de azufre y el trióxido de azufre emitidos por fábricas, centrales eléctricas, calderas de calefacción y vehículos que queman carbón o productos derivados del petróleo que contengan azufre. En interacción con el agua de la lluvia, estos gases forman ácidos nítricos, ácido sulfuroso y ácido sulfúrico. Finalmente, estas sustancias químicas caen a la tierra acompañando a las precipitaciones, constituyendo la lluvia ácida.

Los contaminantes atmosféricos primarios que dan origen a la lluvia ácida pueden recorrer grandes distancias, siendo trasladados por los vientos cientos o miles de kilómetros antes de precipitar en forma de rocío, lluvia, llovizna, granizo, nieve, niebla o neblina. Cuando la precipitación se produce, puede provocar deterioro en el medio ambiente.

La lluvia normalmente presenta un pH de aproximadamente 5.65 (ligeramente ácido), debido a la presencia del CO2 atmosférico, que forma ácido carbónico, H2CO3. Se considera lluvia ácida si presenta un pH menor que 5 y puede alcanzar el pH del vinagre (pH 3), valores que se alcanzan cuando en el aire hay uno o más de los gases citados.

Entre las medidas que se pueden tomar para reducir la emisión de los contaminantes precursores de éste problema tenemos las siguientes:

- Reducir el nivel máximo de azufre en diferentes combustibles.
- Trabajar en conjunto con las fuentes fijas de la industria para establecer disminuciones en la emisión de SOx y NOx, usando tecnologías para control de emisión de estos óxidos.
- Impulsar el uso de gas natural en diversas industrias.
- Introducir el convertidor catalítico de tres vías.
- La conversión a gas en vehículos de empresas mercantiles y del gobierno.
- Ampliación del sistema de transporte eléctrico.
- Instalación de equipos de control en distintos establecimientos.
- No agregar muchas sustancias químicas en los cultivos.
- Adición de un compuesto alcalino en lagos y ríos para neutralizar el pH.
- Control de las condiciones de combustión (temperatura, oxígeno, etc.).


REACCIONES DE OXIDACIÓN REDUCCIÓN

Las estructuras metálicas oxidadas sufren un proceso que se debe a las reacciones:

- Oxidación: Proceso en el que un átomo o un grupo de átomos pierden electrones. En este caso el número de oxidación de la especie que se oxida aumenta.
Fe2+ - 1e- <==> Fe3+
C0 - 4e- <==> C4+

- Reducción: Proceso en el que un átomo o grupo de átomos acepta electrones. En este caso el número de oxidación disminuye.
N+5 + 2e- <==> N+3
Cl20 + 2e- <==> 2 Cl-

Una reacción de oxidación-reducción es aquella en la que se produce una transferencia de electrones entre los reactivos.

Uno de los reactivos actúa como agente oxidante, aceptando electrones y otro como agente reductor, cediendo electrones aunque en algunas ocasiones el mismo reactivo puede ser el agente oxidante y reductor.

Se trata de un proceso de oxidación y otro de reducción simultáneos ya que para que una sustancia se oxide, otra tiene que reducirse. Ejemplo:

C + O2 <==> CO2

Se trata de una reacción de oxidación-reducción en la el Carbono se oxida, pasando su un número de oxidación 0 a +4, mientras que el Oxígeno se reduce, pasando su número de oxidación de 0 a – 2.

C0 - 4e- <==> C4+
O20 + 4e- <==> 2 O2-

Otro ejemplo:

I2 + SO2 + 2H2O <==> H2SO4 + 2 HI

El Yodo es el agente oxidante, por lo tanto se reduce

I20 + 2e- <==> 2I-

El SO2 es el agente reductor y por lo tanto se oxida (El azufre en el SO2 está como S4+ y en el H2SO4 está como

S6+
S4+ - 2e- <==> S6+

En esta reacción se basa el método de determinación de Anhídrido Sulfuroso en vinos.

VELOCIDAD DE REACCIÓN Y EQUILIBRIOS

Las reacciones químicas se expresan mediante ecuaciones, que nos informan tanto cualitativa como cuantitativa de la misma.

Como velocidad de una reacción química, entendemos la variación que experimenta la concentración de las sustancias, reactivos y productos, respecto al tiempo transcurrido. Para una reacción tipo:

A + B <==> C + D

La expresión de la velocidad de reacción para la reacción directa, expresada por v, es:

Para la reacción inversa, expresada por v’, la velocidad vendrá dada por la expresión:


Donde x e y son números enteros distintos de 0.

k es una constante denominada coeficiente cinético. La velocidad de reacción depende de factores como concentración, temperatura o naturaleza de los reactivos, o del tipo de reacción.

- Cinética química: Es un área de la fisicoquímica que se encarga del estudio de la rapidez de reacción, cómo cambia la rapidez de reacción bajo condiciones variables y qué eventos moleculares se efectúan mediante la reacción general (Difusión, ciencia de superficies, catálisis). La cinética química es un estudio puramente empírico y experimental; el área química que permite indagar en las mecánicas de reacción se conoce como dinámica química.

LEY DE ACCÓN DE MASAS. PRODUCTO IÓNICO DEL AGUA

- Ley de Acción de Masas: La mayoría de las reacciones son reversibles. En un proceso reversible, al principio la reacción transcurre hacia la formación de productos, pero a medida que se van formando éstos, se inicia el proceso inverso, donde los productos reaccionan entre sí para dar de nuevo reactivos.

Cuando las velocidades de las reacciones directa e inversa se igualan decimos que se alcanza el equilibrio químico, y las concentraciones de los reactivos y los productos permanecen constantes.

Sea una reacción del tipo A + B <==> C + D donde [A], [B], [C] y[D] representan las concentraciones molares de reactivos y productos, cuando se alcanza el equilibrio.

Las velocidades de reacción (v = velocidad reacción directa y v’=velocidad reacción inversa) para una temperatura dada, vienen expresadas por:

v = k[A] [B] y v'= k'[C] [D]

Cuando se alcance el equilibrio ambas velocidades serán iguales cumpliéndose que:

k[A] [B] = k’[C] [D] o también que


La constante Kc, se denomina constante de equilibrio referida a las concentraciones y solo depende de la temperatura a la que se produce la reacción.

Para una reacción reversible aA + bB <==> cC + dD

La expresión de


Esta expresión matemática se conoce como ley de acción de masas, que nos dice que "para cualquier reacción reversible en equilibrio, a una temperatura dada, se cumple que el producto de las concentraciones molares de los productos, dividido entre el producto de las concentraciones molares de los reactivos, elevados al exponente que indiquen los coeficientes estequiométricos, es una constante".

PRODUCTO IÓNICO DEL AGUA

Cuando aplicamos la ley de acción de masas a la reacción de ionización del agua. El agua se encuentra autoionizada en una pequeña proporción según el proceso:

H2O + H2O <==> H3O+ + OH- también expresada como H2O <==> H+ + OH-

Cuando se alcanza el equilibrio a una cierta temperatura:


también encontraremos la


expresión como

Teniendo en cuenta que la concentración molar del agua pura es 55,6 M y la de H3O+ es de 10-7 a 25ºC, valor (despreciable frente a 55,6 M) se puede considerar que la molaridad del agua es una constante, por lo que se puede englobar con Kc para dar una nueva constante Kw, conocida como producto iónico del agua, cuyo valor a 25ºC esde 10-14.


Cuando el agua pura se ioniza se originan igual número de iones H3O+ que OH-, por lo tanto a 25ºC


Toda disolución que cumpla esta condición se dice que es neutra. Si [H3O+] > 10-7 diremos que la disolución es ácida. De igual manera si [OH- ] > 10-7 diremos que la disolución es básica.


ÁCIDOS Y BASES. PH.

- Concepto de pH: El concepto de pH se inventó, ya es una solución para evitar los exponentes negativos al indicar las concentraciones.

pH es el logaritmo decimal, cambiado de signo, de la concentración molar de iones hidronio (ión hidronio representado por H+ o por H3O+).

Su fórmula es: pH = - log [ H3O+]

Usando este concepto, una disolución será neutra si su pH es igual a 7, siendo ácida cuando el pH sea inferior a 7 y básica cuando pH sea superior a 7

FUERZA RELATIVA DE ÁCIDOS Y BASES

Cuando hablamos de la fuerza de los ácidos y las bases, lo hacemos con referencia al agua, que es el disolvente más universal. Un ácido o una base serán tanto más fuertes cuanto más se disocien en solución acuosa. Así el HCl es un ácido fuerte porque se disocia totalmente, mientras que el HF es un ácido débil por disociarse en una proporción baja:

HCl + H2O ==> H3O+ + Cl- (100%)
HF + H2O <==> H3O+ + F- (8,5%)

La fuerza de un ácido o una base se pueden expresar mediante el valor de la constante de equilibrio de las correspondientes reacciones con el agua.


Los ácidos pueden ser monopróticos, o polipróticos en función de los protones que puedan ceder, pero no debemos confundir la fuerza de los ácidos o bases con el número total de protones que puede ceder o captar.

Los ácidos polipróticos no ceden de forma simultánea y con la misma facilidad todos sus protones sino que lo van haciendo de forma sucesiva y cada vez con más dificultad. Cómo es el caso del ácido (orto) fosfórico:


Se trata de un ácido de fuerza moderada en su primera disociación, débil en la segunda y muy débil en la tercera disociación.

La mayoría de los ácidos de interés en enología son ácidos orgánicos débiles, aunque en los métodos analíticos recurriremos a disoluciones de ácidos y base fuertes como el Ácido Clorhídrico (HCl) y el Hidróxido de Sodio (NaOH).

- Ácidos y bases de Lewis: El químico estadounidense Gilbert N. Lewis dio una definición muy poco completa acerca del comportamiento de los electrones, la cual se puede definir como una fenomenal mezcla de sustancias, el color azul y rojo, por ejemplo que puede aceptar un par de electrones, y para una base como una sustancia que puede donar un par de electrones.1 En 1923 y desarrolló en 1938 su teoría de ácidos y bases:

La diferencia entre el ácido y la base son sus electrones. El ácido debe tener su octeto de electrones incompleto y la base debe tener algún par de electrones solitarios. La reacción de un ácido con una base de Lewis da como resultado un compuesto de adición. Los ácidos de Lewis tales como el cloruro de aluminio, el trifluoruro de boro, el cloruro estánnico, el cloruro de zinc y el cloruro de hierro (III) son catalizadores sumamente importantes de ciertas reacciones orgánicas.

De esta forma se incluyen elementos que se comportan como bases pero no cumplen la definición de Brønsted y Lowry, y suelen ser denominadas ácidos de Lewis. Puesto que el protón, según esta definición, es un ácido de Lewis (tiene vacío el orbital 1s, en donde alojar el par de electrones), todos los ácidos de Brønsted-Lowry son ácidos de Lewis.

Ejemplos de ácidos de Brønsted-Lowry: HCl, HNO3, H3PO4.
Ejemplos de ácidos de Lewis: Ag+, AlCl3, CO2, SO3.

Se puede tener una idea de la fuerza de una sustancia como ácido o base de Lewis utilizando la constante de disociación de su aducto con una base o ácido de Lewis tomado como referencia. Por ejemplo, para comparar la basicidad del amoníaco, metilamina, dimetilamina y trimetilamina en fase gaseosa, se puede utilizar el trimetilborano.


Como ejemplo podemos tomar el caso de la protonación del amoniaco, que actúa como una base de Lewis al donar un par de electrones al agua, transferencia que lleva a su hidrólisis en oxhidrilo y protón, que es recibido por el amoníaco para formar amonio. Esto nos dice que una reacción ácido-base de Lewis es aquella en que existen donaciones de un par de electrones de una especie a otra sin cambios en los números de oxidación de las especies que interactúan. Al poner un ácido a una base, o una base a un ácido se neutralizaran.


QUÍMICA DEL CARBONO

La denominación tradicional de Química Orgánica sigue siendo tan utilizado como la denominación más científica de Química del Carbono. Como definición la Química del Carbono o Química Orgánica es la rama de la química que se ocupa del estudio del Carbono y de sus compuestos.

El átomo de Carbono pertenece al grupo 14 de la Tabla Periódica, y al igual que los demás elementos de este grupo, tiene cuatro electrones en su última capa, por lo que presenta una elevada tendencia a formar enlaces covalentes con otros átomos como el Hidrógeno, el Oxígeno, el Nitrógeno, etc. Pero se debe destacar la frecuencia con la que forma enlaces con otros átomos de Carbono, formando cadenas carbonadas. Estas cadenas abarcan desde dos átomos de Carbono hasta miles de ellos, siendo denominadas macromoléculas cuando pasan de 40 átomos.

Al tener 4 electrones a compartir puede formar hasta 4 enlaces diferentes, pudiendo formar enlaces simples, dobles y triples entre dos átomos de Carbono. Estas cuatro valencias del C son equivalentes al organizarse espacialmente en forma de un tetraedro, con el átomo de Carbono en el centro.

Dado que son muchos los compuestos del Carbono de interés enológico general y también en el laboratorio enológico, es importante conocer los principales grupos funcionales.


CADENAS CARBONADAS Y CLASES DE ÁTOMOS

Entendemos por cadenas carbonadas las formadas por un determinado número de átomos de carbono, unidos entre si mediante enlaces covalentes.

Hay diferentes tipos de cadena, según sea a su forma:
- Abierta o acíclica: Los átomos de carbono extremos no están unidos entre sí. No forman anillos o ciclos.
- Cerrada o cíclica: El último carbono de la cadena se une al primero, formando un ciclo o anillo. Hay varios tipos.

Los átomos de Carbono de una cadena pueden ser:
- Primarios: Unidos a otro átomo de Carbono.
- Secundarios: Si está unidos a dos átomos de Carbono.
- Terciarios: Unidos a tres átomos de Carbono.
- Cuaternarios: Unidos a cuatro átomos de Carbono.
El orden de preferencia es el acordado por la IUPAC


TIPOS DE COMPUESTOS

El etanol, es el alcohol de farmacia o del vino, pero también existen otros compuestos de fórmula muy parecida como el etanal o el ácido etanoico del vinagre, pero con características muy diferentes. Para entender estas diferencias, hay que conocer a que grupo de compuestos orgánicos pertenecen.

- Función química y grupo funcional: Se llama función química a cada grupo de compuestos con propiedades y comportamientos químicos característicos. Cada función se caracteriza por poseer un agregado, de uno o varios átomos, al que se denomina grupo funcional.

- Orden de preferencia:
- Cuando en un compuesto hay un solo grupo funcional, la cadena principal es la que contiene la función, y se numera de tal forma que corresponda al carbono de la función el localizador más bajo posible.
- Cuando en el compuesto hay más de un grupo funcional, la cadena principal es la que contiene la función preferente. Las demás funciones no se tienen en cuenta y se nombran como sustituyentes.
- El orden de preferencia es el acordado por la IUPAC.


EL ANÁLISIS QUÍMICO. COCEPTOS GENERALES

Según el diccionario de la RAE, el término "Análisis" significa: "Distinción y separación de las partes de un todo hasta llegar a conocer sus principios o elementos".

En el diccionario María Moliner se define el término "Análisis" como:
a.Procedimiento utilizado para conocer o razonar, que consiste en descomponer el total del objeto del conocimiento en partes, o bien en aplicar a un caso particular un conocimiento o ley general que lo comprende.
b. Examen de una cosa, realizado separando sus componentes.
c. En lenguaje corriente, examen detenido de una cuestión.

Se conoce como análisis químico al conjunto de procedimientos, técnicas y métodos, con su fundamento teórico, que se llevan a cabo para la determinación de la composición química de la materia.

Si esta definición es aplicada al campo del análisis enológico, se tratará del estudio y la aplicación de técnicas y métodos de análisis tanto químico como microbiológico, necesarios para el control de los diferentes productos de la industria enológica, tanto si se trata de productos acabados como durante el proceso de elaboración.

CLASIFICACIÓN DE LOS MÉTODOS DE ANÁLISIS

Según la finalidad o información que se busca con el análisis, puedes clasificar las técnicas analíticas en dos campos bien
diferenciados:

- Análisis Cualitativo: El objeto es dar respuesta a la pregunta ¿qué? composición tienen una muestra determinada. El resultado de un análisis cualitativo proporciona información respeto a las especies atómicas o moleculares, o a los grupos funcionales que existen en la muestra. Se trata pues de técnicas o métodos de identificación.

- Análisis cuantitativo: En este caso se busca la respuesta a la pregunta ¿Cuánto? Suministrando información numérica como, por ejemplo cantidad relativa de uno o varios de los componentes de la muestra. Se trata pues, de técnicas o métodos de cuantificación.

En ambos casos se hace uso de propiedades físicas o químicas de la materia, para alcanzar el objetivo.

También en ambos casos es necesario aplicar operaciones preliminares para aislar las especies en cuestión de otras que interfieren en los procesos analíticos.

Atendiendo a la propiedad medida o fundamento del método empleado podemos clasificar los métodos analíticos como sigue:


CONCEPTOS DE QUÍMICA ANALÍTICA

Como normalmente suele prestarse a confusión la terminología más usual en química analítica, sería conveniente definir algunos términos, con el objeto de evitar errores o malas interpretaciones.

- Un análisis es un proceso que aporta información química, física o biológica acerca de los componentes de una muestra.

- Reciben la denominación de analitos los componentes de interés presentes en la muestra y el resto de los componentes forman la matriz de la misma. Hay que tener claro la diferencia entre exactitud y precisión.

- Exactitud: Es la medida de aproximación del resultado obtenido en los análisis y el valor real que debería dar. En realidad se debe de considerar el valor de la media de los resultados, ya que siempre se deben de realizar los análisis por duplicado o triplicado.

- Precisión: Es la medida de lo próximos que están entre si los resultados obtenidos al realizar varias veces el mismo análisis a una misma muestra. Es importante reseñar que, el que un método sea preciso, no implica que sea exacto.

- Sensibilidad: Capacidad de un método analítico para distinguir entre la cantidad de analito presente en dos muestras muy parecidas. Cuanto más semejantes sean estas cantidades más sensible es el método.

- Selectividad: Un método o técnica analítica es selectivo, cuando su señal solo depende de la cantidad de analito presente en la muestra.

- Patrón primario: Aquella sustancia con composición definida y estabilidad suficiente, para que por simple pesada y posterior dilución se pueda preparar una disolución de concentración exacta.

Ante el planteamiento de un problema analítico, hay una secuendia de pasos que se deben de seguir para seleccionar la técnica y el procedimiento que se va a utilizar.


MUESTREO

Es inviable, tener que analizar todo el vino de una bodega, todas las uvas de una finca o tener que abrir todas las botellas de un lote para comprobar la posible existencia de bacterias lácticas o su grado alcohólico. Es por ello que en la inmensa mayoría de los casos, siempre que se pretenda realizar un análisis, deberemos recurrir a tomar una porción del total para llevar al laboratorio.

- Muestreo: Es la acción de seleccionar una serie de elementos de una población con la intención de tratar de predecir los valores del conjunto de la misma.
- Muestra: Es el conjunto de elementos tomados con la finalidad de ser analizados.

El objetivo del muestreo es obtener una muestra de la población total (bodega, depósito, parcela, etc) y que una vez analizada, se obtengan unos resultados analíticos, cuyo valor se pueda trasladar a la población total.

Para lograr este objetivo, la muestra tiene que ser representativa del producto que se va a analizar y que la muestra analizada en el laboratorio sea homogénea. Para garantizar este objetivo, deberemos recurrir a la aplicación de la estadística, por lo que es necesario conocer los conceptos básicos estadísticos (media, desviación, nivel de confianza, etc).

SISTEMAS DE MUESTREO

Diferentes manera en las que se puede llevar a cabo un muestreo:

a. Inspección Total: Generalmente impracticable. Sólo en algunos casos ante la presencia de defectos de vital importancia.

b. Inspección Parcial:

- Aleatorio o al azar: Todos los elementos deben tener igual oportunidad de salir elegidos para formar parte de la muestra. Debe emplearse una tabla o sistema de números aleatorios.

- Estratificado Aleatorio: Se aplica cuando en la población existen grupos de distintas categorías. Para su aplicación se procede dividiendo el lote o población en grupos o estratos y se elige al azar un número determinado de elementos en cada estrato para formar parte de la muestra. Ejemplos: etudios relativos a personas estratificando por edades, zonas, ingresos, etc. Por turno de trabajo, por proveedor, etc.

- Sistemático Puro: Se seleccionan unidades mediante un criterio único. Por ejemplo, en la línea de embotellado:
1.- Una botella cada 100 unidades.
2.- Una una botella cada 150 minutos.

- Sistemático Aleatorio: Cubre las deficiencias del anterior, en los procesos donde el operario tiene una gran influencia. Se procede de igual forma que en el Sistemático Puro, pero se cambia ahora al azar los puntos iniciales de períodos sucesivos de producción, o bien, se aleatoriza las frecuencias de
inspección.

- Autoritario: En este caso una persona con experiencia y familiarizada con el producto que va a muestrearse, extrae la muestra sin tener en cuenta la aleatorización de los casos anteriores. Tal procedimiento depende completamente del conocimiento y pericia de la persona que hace el muestreo. No recomendado, aunque en algún caso puede dar buenos resultados.

NÚMERO DE MUESTRAS

Conceptos y fórmulas de cálculo:Para determinar el tamaño de muestra (número de muestras, cantidad de muestra, etc.) es necesario que fijemos previamente una serie de parámetros, para garantizar que el resultado del análisis se pueda extrapolar a la población. Lo cual nos lleva a enfocar el muestreo desde un punto de vista estadístico, aunque muy simplificado.

El número de muestras viene dado por la expresión:


Donde:
n: número de muestras.
z: número estadístico tabulado, según nivel de confianza.
σ: desviación estándar de los valores.
k: intervalo de confianza.

Nivel de confianza: En industrias alimentarias se debe de trabajar con un nivel de confianza mínimo del 95%, que si consultamos las tablas estadísticas le corresponde un z = 1,96.

Si queremos ser más exigentes y trabajar con un nivel de confianza del 99% el valor de z = 2,56. Intervalo de confianza: Para un valor determinado de un parámetro (contenido en SO2 total) decidir con que intervalo ± daremos por válido el análisis.

Cuanto mayor sea el número de muestras, menor será el intervalo de confianza.

CÁLCULO DE NÚERMO DE MUESTRAS

- Ejemplo cálculo intervalo de confianza: En una de las líneas de embotellado de la bodega, durante un turno se ha tomado una muestra de 80 botellas de
vino para determinar el contenido de anhídrido sulfuroso total, obteniéndose los siguientes resultados: media aritmética de los resultados x- = 120 mg/l y desviación estándar σ = 10.

Determinar el intervalo con un nivel de confianza del 99% para la media de la distribución de la población.

El intervalo buscado viene dado por la expresión:

(x- - k) ≤ μ ≤ (x- + k) siendo μ la media de la población donde k es:


Para el nivel de confianza del 99% se obtiene (ver tabla) z=(2,58)


y por tanto: 120 -2,88 ≤ μ ≤ (120 + 2,88) es decir 117,12 ≤ μ ≤ 122,88 es decir que puede expresarse también como μ = 120 ± 2,88 y significa que existe una probabilidad del 99% de que la media poblacional de las botellas de vino embotelladas durante el turno esté comprendida entre 117,20 y 122,88 mg SO2/l.

- Ejemplo cálculo número de muestras: Ahora se desea conocer el tamaño de la muestra, n, con k = 15 (media poblacional comprendida entre 105 y 135 mg/l de sulfuros total) para una confianza del 95% y para el 99%.


Turistas del Vino Suizos en La Rioja - Bodegas Urbina

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TURISTAS DEL VINO SUIZOS EN LA RIOJA "BODEGAS URBINA"

El vino en suiza es un producto muy valorado, puesto que, a pesar de ser un país pequeño con sólo unos 7,5 millones de habitantes, es el octavo país importador de vinos de todo el mundo. Los precios medios de venta son elevados, gracias a su alta renta per cápita (50.000 euros).


La media de consumo de vino en suiza se sitúa en 41 botellas anuales per cápita al año, que se traduce en un mercado de 310 millones de botellas anuales. Importándolo principalmente de Italia, Francia, España, Estados Unidos y Portugal, aunque durante los últimos años, Argentina, Chile y Sudáfrica entre otros, están acaparando mucha cuota de mercado.


La producción de vinos suizos apenas se deja sentir en el resto del mundo, ya que hasta el 98% de lo que se produce es consumido en el propio país.


VISITA LA RIOJA CON "TRAVELOJA"

Conocer una bodega y degustar sus vinos sin tener que conducir, es sin duda alguna una de las mejores propuesta para cualquier amante del vino, la gastromía, la cultura y la aventura.


Traveloja una agencia joven que nos asesorara y traslada en una furgoneta de aproximadamente 8 plazas, a todas las actividades que queramos realizar: visitar bodegas (modernas, centenarias, y de autor), restaurantes, pueblos emblemáticos, hoteles con encanto, casas rurales románticas, y mucho más. Pero todo ello sin la necesidad de tener que conducir nuestro coche, con lo que se consigue que el vino y la carretera compongan un perfecto maridaje.


La actividad se puede realizar de forma individual, en grupo, en familia, o en pareja, adaptada siempre a cualquier edad y procedencia. El objetivo es pasar un día único donde conocer personas y escenarios diferentes a los habituales, mientras se disfruta de los mejores vinos y gastronomía local.


Esta iniciativa de turismo rural y enológico también se puede compaginar con una amplia gama de actividades diferentes:

- Enológico: Ruta de Bodegas; Curso de iniciación a la cata.
- Gastronomico: Gastronomía; Ruta de vinos y pinchos; Cata en calle Laurel; Ejercicios de maridajes.
- Deporte: Excursiones; Senderismo; Carrera de Orientación; Paintball; Kayak; Paseos a caballo o bicicleta; Quads; Tiro con arco; Vuelos en avioneta o en globo.
- Salud y Belleza: Spas; Gimnasios; Vinoterapia.
- Cultural y artístico: Ruta fotográfica; Excursión cultural; Ruta de los monasterios; Ruta medieval; Ruta del románico; Visita a pueblos emblemáticos.

 
- Nombre: Traveloja
- Web: www.traveloja.com
- Email: info@traveloja.com
- Teléfono: +34 619 11 53 35


GASTRONOMIA RIOJANA

Traveloja te ayudara a disfrutar de la mejor gastronomía riojana, y que mejor forma que degustar un tradicional almuerzo riojano, dentro de una autentica bodega subterránea del siglo XVII, ya que en aquel entonces se cavaban cuevas o calados en la montañas para conseguir la frescura y unas mejores elaboraciones.


El plato más típico de La Rioja son las chuletillas al sarmiento (también denominadas chuletas al sarmiento) son un plato asado típico de La Rioja, cuyo ingrediente principal son las chuletas (denominadas en otras partes de España como costillas) de cordero. Suele ser parte fundamental de cualquier celebración de esta comunidad, y difícil de ver fuera de la misma.


Como ingredientes, se suelen emplear unas chuletillas de cordero y con la simple añadidura de sal (preferentemente sal gorda) se procede a asar. La dificultad de encontrar este plato en cualquier restaurante estriba en su modo de elaboración, ya que se requiere un espacio al aire libre, o en su defecto una chimenea.


Se prepara un fuego con una gavilla de sarmientos (un atajo de ramas de vid secas), dejándola reducir hasta las brasas. Antes de que eso ocurra, se coloca la parrilla al fuego para limpiarla, una vez quemada, con papel de periódico, eliminando los restos de su anterior uso. Cuando los sarmientos se han convertido en brasas, se colocan las chuletillas en la parrilla, se salan, y se colocan sobre las brasas. Cuando se vea que están hechas por un lado, se da la vuelta a la parrilla y se termina su cocción. En ocasiones se riega con un chorro de vino de Rioja poco antes de sacarlas de las brasas.


Dada la complejidad de su elaboración, es un plato que se disfruta principalmente en las reuniones de amigos en bodegas o merenderos, siendo muy pocos los restaurantes de la comunidad autónoma que pueden incluirlo en su carta. Tradicionalmente, en las Fiestas de la Vendimia de Logroño, se celebra el denominado Festival de la chuleta al sarmiento, heredero de otro que se realizaba en la ciudad en los años 70 en una céntrica calle, en el cual cuadrillas de jóvenes competían en comer la mayor cantidad posible.


También cave destacar que La Rioja fue galardonada como la primera capital española de la gastronomía, un reconocimiento por su gran calidad así como por su creatividad.


La gastronomía riojana se define cómo el conjunto de procesos culinarios y de productos que se encuentran en La Rioja, aunque se trata de una región que posee más ingredientes característicos que platos y preparaciones.


La denominación 'a la riojana' que poseen muchos de sus platos proviene del empleo abundante del pimiento abundante en sus huertas, o de algunos de sus derivados como se trata del pimentón.


Entre las preparaciones más emblemáticas de la comunidad se tienen las chuletas al sarmiento (un asado típico). El empleo de sarmientos procedentes de la vid es muy popular en la generación de brasas para la realización de asados.


Se tienen igualmente preparaciones como los caparrones de Anguiano (caparrones “coloraos"), las pochas a la riojana, la menestra de verduras, los pimientos rellenos y las patatas con chorizo o patatas a la riojana.


En la repostería (denominada en la región golmajería) se tiene muy presente la almendra fruto muy abundante en la región. Sobre todo en la zona de la Rioja Baja.


BODEGAS URBINA

- Localización: Bodegas Urbina esta situada en un bonito pueblo medieval llamado "Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón", además de ser una afamada zona vinícola situada en la subzona de La Rioja Alta.


Cuzcurrita, en la Edad Media, fue plaza fuerte y la villa estaba amurallada, además de tener un castillo con extramuros que fue construido a finales del siglo XV. Disfruta de su casco antiguo y déjate perder por sus estrechas calles.


La Iglesia de San Miguel, situada en la Plaza Mayor, también es una visita obligatoria. Fue construida en el siglo XVIII en estilo barroco riojano, dándose por terminada en 1805. Fue declarada "Bien de Interés Cultural" en la categoría de Monumento en 1978. También se pueden visitar dos ermitas, una de estilo románico y otra de estilo barroco.


- Bodega Familiar: Urbina es una Bodega exclusivamente Familiar de Rioja, propietarios de sus propios viñedos y herederos de la experiencia de cuatro generaciones de antepasados dedicadas al cultivo y elaboración de vinos, que son una expresión liquida del lugar del que proceden. Esta bodega también se caracteriza por el perfecto ensamblaje entre la juventud del equipo y la experiencia de sus generaciones precedentes.


- Viñedos: Los viñedos de Bodegas Urbina tienen entre 25 y 40 años mayoritariamente con excepciones de incluso 80 años de antigüedad. En su conjunto suman unas 75 hectáreas aproximadamente.


Los vinos de Bodegas Urbina son una conjunción de uvas procedentes de Cuzcurrita, la zona más occidental de la Rioja Alta, que produce vinos con una gran capacidad de envejecimiento, aptos para los Grandes Reservas y de los viñedos de Uruñuela, situados en el corazón de la denominación, y que producen vinos muy agradables y aromáticos en su juventud.


Sólo se usan viñedos propios y donde todo se hace de la forma más ecológica y sosteniblemente posible. La vendimia se acostumbra a hacer a finales de septiembre o principios de octubre, dependiendo del clima del año en particular.


- Vinos: A estos jóvenes bodegueros les gusta elaborar vinos peculiares, honestos, de gran calidad y con mucha personalidad que realmente refleje el lugar del que proceden. Utilizando una viticultura y enología respetuosa con el medio ambiente, pero aprovechando también los avances de las nuevas tecnologías. Para de esta forma poder sentir el perfecto ensamblaje entre la viña y el vino (vinos de pago o terroir, producciones pequeñas, hechas exclusivamente con las variedades autóctonas de la D.O.Ca. Rioja).


- Visita: Visitar Bodegas Urbina es una experiencia muy especial y diferente. En la que uno puede sentirse como un autentico bodeguero riojano durante un día, aprendiendo de la mano de auténticos profesionales, las diferentes actividades propias de un viticultor y un enólogo.


Para ello caminar entre viñedos es fundamental para poder sentir y entender, lo qué es importante para que la uva se convierta en buen vino. Aprender las diferentes actividades que son necesarias realizar en cada momento del año (poda, poda en verde, deshojado, control de la maduración de la uva, vendimia…). Además de ser un lugar perfecto para disfrutar de los vinos y la naturaleza.


En la sala de catas de la bodega se puede catar vinos jóvenes, otros con diferentes tiempos de estancia en barrica y botella para poder entender las diferencias en su evolución y muchas otras cosas.



En la Cata se degustan y comentan todos los vinos de la Bodega:
- Vinos jóvenes: blanco, rosado, garnacha (maceración carbónica), tempranillo (joven, cosechero, vino del año).
- Vinos clásicos o tradicionales: crianza, reserva, gran reserva.
- Vinos modernos, de autor, de diseño, o de alta expresión: tinto especial (vendimia tardía o uvas pasificadas), plot.


PERFIL DEL CONSUMIDOR DE VINO SUIZO

Suiza es un país con un respeto, afición y deificación por el mundo del vino y su cultura, donde se celebra cada momento importante con unas botellas de blanco o tinto de la tierra.


Aproximadamente un 50% de los adultos suizos bebe vino. Son consumidores que no temen probar referencias nuevas y, aunque los vinos españoles son percibidos como acompañamiento ideal de ocasiones informales


Un país especialmente tentador para las bodegas exportadoras debido al alto volumen de consumo de vino por persona, ya que la cuota de litros per cápita asciende hasta los 46 litros en la población adulta, muy por encima de otros países.


Los suizos valoran los vinos autóctonos, identificables con el terroir y uvas específicas, que sean modernos y con cierta crianza pero sin exceso de madera.


La competencia de otras bebidas, el envejecimiento de la población y la evolución de los hábitos de consumo provocan una concentración paulatina de las ventas en segmentos de mercado cada vez más altos.


En cuanto al perfil de los consumidores, entre los más jóvenes hay un mayor número de bebedores aunque también un menor número de regulares, es decir, de los que beben vino español semanalmente. Además, comparados con otros países, los vinos españoles cuentan con una buena dosis de consumidores regulares o semanales.


Los suizos asocian fuertemente a España con vinos para ocasiones informales y con vinos de tradición, variedad y buena relación calidad/precio pero no con vinos caros o de una gran variedad. El vino se compra sobre todo en supermercados, pero también en tiendas especializadas y los tapones de corcho dominan en este mercado que se podría clasificar como un “típico” mercado europeo.


Para los consumidores regulares de vino español, las marcas y la indicación de envejecimiento son importantes a la hora de comprar nuestros vinos y hay una fuerte asociación de España con regiones productoras.


Por zonas, Rioja está bien posicionada, ya que cuenta con un alto conocimiento e intención de compra y otras zonas también bastante conocidas por los suizos son Ribera del Duero, Valdepeñas y Cava.

Los consumidores suizos actuales de vino español reclaman una mayor información sobre los vinos españoles y sus ofertas. Un tercio de estos consumidores, con un interés alto en el vino, reclama más referencias en el canal Horeca.


IMPORTACIONES DE VINOS ESPAÑOLES EN SUIZA

Suiza está consolidado como el quinto destino en valor de las exportaciones de vino español. Un informe elaborado por el OeMv (Observatorio Español del Mercado del Vino) sobre las importaciones vitivinícolas de Suiza, observo que el vino español fue el que más subió de precio en este país en 2013. Aunque la verdad sea dicha todavía está lejos de la media.

En el año 2012, el vino español marcó cifras record, exportando por valor de 107 millones de euros, únicamente por detrás de los cuatro grandes que superan los 200 millones de euros (Alemania - 446 Mill., Reino Unido – 353 Mill, Estados Unidos – 243 Mill. y Francia 216 Mill.). Suiza es uno de los mercados más importantes para los vinos españoles de calidad

En Suiza, las cifras de importación son elevadas. Dos tercios (2/3) del vino consumido proceden del extranjero. En total, el 64% del vino consumido en Suiza es importado, en un mercado de 280 millones de litros anuales y precios medios de venta elevados gracias a la alta renta per cápita (50.000 euros).

No obstante, los suizos también gustan del consumo de sus propios vinos, que suponen el tercio restante de la demanda y el 98% de la producción total de los vinos locales.

Suiza es el octavo importador de vinos más importante del mundo gracias a un consumo de 41 botellas per cápita al año, que se traduce en un mercado de 310 millones de botellas anuales.

Sus cinco principales proveedores son, en orden de importancia, Italia, Francia, España, EE.UU. y Portugal, responsables de abastecer esos dos tercios de la demanda. El vino italiano sigue siendo el que goza de mayor popularidad, con una cuota del 37% del vino importado. Le siguen Francia y España, con un 23% y 21% respectivamente.

El vino español goza de una relativa estabilidad e incluso progresa lentamente en un mercado maduro, pero que admite todavía nuevos vinos españoles.

En 2010, las ventas de vino español a Suiza fueron:
- Volumen: 38 millones de litros vendidos (20% del total)
- Valor: 151 millones de francos suizos o 125,3 millones de euros (14% del total)

SUIZA COMO PRODUCTOR DE VINO

Con sólo 15.000 hectáreas de viñedo, produce unos 120 millones de botellas de vino cada año, y su consumo per cápita es mucho más alto que el español.

Pese a las condiciones muy duras de un país alpino frío y lluvioso y a menudo demasiado alto para el cultivo del viñedo, ésta presente en todos los 23 cantones de la Confederación Helvética. La difícil viticultura, a menudo en terrazas escarpadas sin posibilidad de mecanización, es poco rentable, haciendo de este cultivo una obra de arte.

La viña se concentra sobre todo en los cantones francófonos de Valais, Vaud y Ginebra, donde la modesta uva blanca chasselas llega a su mayor expresión, pero también alcanza a la Suiza Alemana y al cantón italiano hablante del Ticino, zona de buenos tintos de merlot. También se están creando nuevas variedades nacidas de cruces (gamaret, garanoir...).

- La zona de habla francesa: Al sudoeste del país, es la principal productora, en especial el cantón de Valais. En las laderas orientadas al sur del valle del Ródano predomina la chasselas (fendant), que da vinos ligeros y suavemente afrutados sobre todo secos y a menudo con un toque de dióxido de carbono residual. Son un fiel reflejo del terruño, pero también hay ejemplos más contundentes. La pinot noir también es popular y, mezclada con gamay, se traduce en doles ligeros y refrescantes. Estas variedades predominan en el resto de la región: Vaud, Ginebra y Nechatel.

- La zona de habla alemana: Al este del país, proliferan tintos de blauburgunder (pinot noir). Los blancos se hacen sobre todo com muller-thurgau, de maduración temprana. En la zona de habla italiana de Ticino, al sur, el clima cálido permite cultivar merlot, con la que se hacen buenos tintos, ligeros y afrutados o más serios y con mucha fruta. Hay pinot noir en las altitudes donde la merlot sobrevive en duras penas.

Si bien, la industria vitivinícola helvética se maneja a partir de un bajo perfil, durante las últimas tres décadas Suiza ha iniciado un intenso proceso de innovación a partir de cepas olvidadas como la Arinarnoa, Bondola, Cornalin, Humagne Rouge o Heida, que comienzan a dar fruto.

Regiones como Ginebra, por ejemplo, se han convertido en el terruño de las especialidades, con una docena de vinos producidos siempre en pequeñas cantidades, pero a partir de meticulosas y perfeccionistas propuestas para hacer vinos distintos a los que fabrican los vecinos franceses, españoles o italianos, que son sus principales competidores.

El sumiller sueco Andreas Larsson gano el concurso Mejor Sumiller del Mundo 2007 en Rodas (El concurso mas prestigioso de su categoría).

Restaurante Echaurren Mejor Carta de Vinos

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LA REAL ACADEMIA DE GASTRONOMÍA PREMIA AL RESTAURANTE ECHAURREN POR SU CARTA DE VINOS

La Real Academia de Gastronomía y la Cofradía de la Buena Mesa han premiado al restaurante Echaurren, de Ezcaray, por ser el establecimiento con la mejor carta de vinos.

El Hotel Restaurante Echaurren se encuentra en una de las regiones vinícolas más importantes de nuestro país, la Rioja y enclavado en el centro histórico de la Villa de Ezcaray. Es una zona de montaña con unos paisajes preciosos y cerca de una estación de ski.


En la actualidad el Eschaurren goza de un gran reconocimiento tanto a nivel local como internacional, ya que pocos hoteles pueden ofrecernos degustar una de las mejores cartas de vinos, cocinas tradicionales y de vanguardia en el mismo espacio. Hay dos cocinas una para comida tradicional y otra para platos más modernos de autor o diseño.

Se trata de un establecimiento familiar y centenario que ha pasado de padres a hijos. Francis Paniego (Chef) junto a su hermano José Félix "Chefe" (Jefe de Sala), son las cabezas visibles de la quinta generación que regenta este enclave gastronómico de referencia y que ha logrado a lo largo de la historia: Mantener su esencia; Actualizarse; Crecer y Adaptarse a unas nuevas necesidades de mercado.


El establecimiento consta de cuatro partes:
- Restaurante Echaurren: Premio nacional de gastronomía, en el se realiza una cocina tradicional en un elegante montaje clásico y los platos de siempre de Marisa Sánchez. José Félix Paniego gestiona con elegancia y entusiasmo la sala y la bodega con más de 300 referencias de vinos.
- El Portal de Echaurren: Cocina de vanguardia inspirada por Francis Paniego y único restaurante de la región riojana que posee una estrella Michelín.
- El Comilón: es un coqueto bistro o gastro-bar, en invierno se llena de esquiadores con un buen ambiente para ir con amigos, en pareja o familia.
- Hotel Echaurren: Esta enclavado en le centro histórico de la villa de Ezcaray y ofrece unas cuidadas instalaciones. La característica principal de este hotel es que se trata de un establecimiento familiar y centenario que ha pasado de padres a hijos.



LA BODEGA Y CARTA DE VINOS DEL ECHAURREN

Si Francis Paniego aporta un nuevo concepto culinario al Echaurren, su hermano José Félix son los ojos de la cocina en el comedor dotando a El Portal de un jefe de sala, sumiller y director de bodega de primer nivel.

José Félix, es la primera cara afable y amistosa que el cliente de la casa encuentra al llegar a ella, es un hombre discreto, sencillo, profesional y elegante en sus formas y visión de la vida.

Su carácter modesto le lleva a considerar que lo que hace es lo que ha aprendido de sus padres, es decir, "ser atento con el cliente, hacer que se sienta satisfecho, saber recibirle y despedirse de él".


Es sin duda alguna es una persona muy sensible hacia el papel que el vino debe desempeñar en un restaurante, inquietud heredada quizá de su padre.

"Chefe", como le llaman todos, ha dotado a El Portal de una carta en la que se encuentran las principales referencias de la DO de La Rioja, pero también aquellas pequeñas bodegas riojanas que no son tan conocidas, pero que también disponen de grandes vinos.

Esta búsqueda romántica y humana es una de sus mayores preocupaciones, saber encontrar esas pequeñas maravillas y otras que ofrece la variada oferta vinícola española.


- Nombre: Hotel Gastronómico Echaurren
- Dirección: C/ Padre José García, 19. 26280, Ezcaray - La Rioja
- Teléfono: 941 354 047
- Mail: info@echaurren.com
- Web: www.echaurren.com


LA CARTA DE VINOS EN UN RESTAURANTE

El menú es la base sobre la que se apoya toda la actividad del restaurante: La carta de vinos, la atmósfera del local, la mantelería, la cubertería, la cristalería, la actitud del personal, la disponibilidad de materias primas (teniendo en cuenta la estacionalidad), la capacidad para ejecutar determinados platos y las exigencias de la clientela dependerán precisamente de él.

La carta de vinos es la tarjeta de visita a la bodega del restaurante y el instrumento con el que el sumiller logra que el cliente la conozca. De esta forma, la carta de vinos representa la fusión de un determinado modo de concebir el placer de la comida. Siendo crucial la colaboración del sumiller y el cocinero para conseguir la mejor combinación posible entre la comida y el vino, ya que un maridaje feliz entre comida y vino puede llegar a ser una experiencia única y producir un placer inolvidable.


ASPECTOS FÍSICOS DE LA CARTA DE VINOS

- Encargársela a una Imprenta: Pero entonces hay que valorar su coste, además de la dificultad a la hora de realizar modificaciones cuando sea necesario.

- Textos Redactados Mediante Ordenador: Con una encuadernación en espiral nos permite cambiarlos rápidamente si hace falta, o se agota algún vino.

- Instrumento de Marketing y Comunicación: Tendremos que estudiar y cuidar el grafismo y el diseño para que atraiga la atención de los clientes. Pudiendo incluir en ella algún mapa, gráfico, foto, símbolos, dibujos, citas de poetas, que acompañen a la presentación de los vinos y hacerla más sugestiva. Pero eso si, procurando evitar excesivos adornos que puedan distraer la atención del comensal.

- Informatizada o Digital: Mediante una tableta electrónica. Los comensales pueden informarse, consultar y escoger el vino de su preferencia entre el total de referencias disponibles en la bodega. Pudiendo disfrutar de una detallada descripción donde se recoge el color, el aroma, el gusto, la situación de la bodega, la Denominación de origen, sugerencias de maridaje de cada vino, etc. También hay que tener en cuenta que este novedoso procedimiento entretiene más al cliente el cual requerirá de más tiempo en su toma de decisión.


ORGANIZACIÓN Y ESTRUCTURA DE LA CARTA DE VINOS

La carta de vinos puede redactarse y organizarse de diferentes modos, pero sin olvidar que debe ser fácil de leer y atractiva de consultar. En el caso de tener una Carta con un número de páginas considerables, es aconsejable contar con un índice de las referencias de la Carta, e  incorporar subdivisiones como, por ejemplo, el país o lugar de origen.


- Gustos del Mercado: Depende de la localización de los restaurantes, en la carta de vinos se tiende a predominar los vinos de la zona por encima de otras Denominaciones de Origen y otros países. Por ejemplo en la Rioja, Navarra, o Ribera del Duero la carta esta dominada principalmente por vinos locales.

Capitales del mundo cómo Londres, New York y ciudades situadas en lugares no productoras de vino. Tendrán una vocación internacional permitiendo el poder tener cartas muy variadas, el resto de ciudades tiene que adaptarse a la zona donde trabajan.


- Cocina que se practica: Vinos que vayan acordes con el estilo de cocina que se practica. Si el restaurante es especialista en mariscos, pescados y productos del mar los vinos blancos deberían predominar. Si el establecimiento es un asador los vinos tintos dominaran la carta.

- Orden Correlativo y Dividida en Categorías: Comenzar con los vinos de Aperitivo tales como Generosos Secos, Blancos Jóvenes, Rosados y Espumosos. Seguidamente los Blancos de más cuerpo, Jóvenes Tintos, Crianzas, Reservas y Gran Reserva. Terminando siempre con los vinos Dulces y los Licorosos.


- Limitada en la oferta: De carácter local, fácil de consultar y especialmente adecuada para pequeños restaurantes situados en zonas de producción. Si se propone elaborar una carta internacional una alternativa es dividirla en dos secciones: una dedicada a la oferta nacional y otra a la producción internacional.

Para que un restaurante tenga una buena carta de vinos, no ha de tener infinitas referencias como más de mil referencias que tienen los restaurantes de tres estrellas michelín, con 50 o 60 se puede hacer una carta muy digna. Lo que sí es necesario es estar actualizado y mínimamente informado de lo que se tiene y más importante todavía que no falten en la bodega las botellas listadas en la carta de vinos.


- Otras Organizaciones y Estructuras: Por regiones o países, variedades de uva, tipologías, orden alfabético, añadas, precio, del más liviano al más corpulento, del más simple al más complejo y elegante, de los vinos secos a los más dulces, etc. Y siempre manteniendo la subdivisión de los distintos tipos de vinos: espumosos, blancos, rosados y tintos.

- Información: En las columnas deben indicarse el nombre específico de cada vino, la denominación (DOCG, DOC, IGT, VDT), el año de la vendimia, la razón social del productor, la región de procedencia, el tipo de cepa o los viñedos de los que proviene, su contenido alcohólico y su precio.


LAS SUGERENCIAS DE VINOS

El sumiller es la persona que mejor puede aconsejar al cliente. Al elegir, no se debe aceptar imposiciones, ya que el gusto personal del cliente es siempre prioritario. Pero una conversación con el propietario, maître o sumiller es casi siempre algo enriquecedor y redundará por tanto en comer y beber mejor. Ya que conocen mejor que nadie la composición y preparación de los platos, que influyen en la textura y sabores de los alimentos, factores fundamentales a tener en cuenta de cara al maridaje.


El sumiller ha de tener un conocimiento pleno en todo lo referente a la diversidad de los vinos presentados en la carta. De esta forma pude vender mejor sus ideas y sugerencias. Dicho esto la formación del personal es fundamental. Formación es igual a Información, por ello cuanto más sepamos sobre un vino, más se puede potenciar su venta.

El vino no se vende por sí solo, es el sumiller o persona encargada de vinos el que tiene que ofertar, sugerir y servir los vinos que están a su recaudo. Para ello, debe tener conocimientos sobre las tipologías de vino, las zonas vitivinícolas, las variedades de uva, las vinificaciones, maridajes, el servicio de cada vino etc., y controlando a la perfección la información concerniente en su carta de vinos, para que nunca exista el temor de quedarse sin una respuesta convincente ante el cliente.


VINOS POR COPAS

Consiste en la oferta de vinos servidos por copa, permitiendo elegir una o más copas de un gran vino con el plato que elige cada comensal.

Esta nueva oferta es debida a una serie de circunstancias y variables como son: Menos tiempo dedicado a la acción de comer fuera; El no arriesgarse a pedir una botella que no puede terminarse de beber; El ir a comer solo; Ir acompañado pero solo uno de los comensales toma vino; Control en el consumo de alcohol por parte de cada cliente (consumo responsable); Abordar vinos de muy alto precio, etc.

La oferta por copas tiene que ser variada y sugestiva, como si de la carta de vinos se tratara. Es una buena forma de hacer rotar los vinos de la bodega y cubrir sus márgenes de beneficio, ya que aumenta el volumen total de vino vendido, especialmente de los vinos de gama alta.


La problemática de este sistema puede incurrir en pérdidas de botellas que una vez abiertas se oxidan al poco tiempo. Pero hoy día existe una fácil solución, ya que en el mercado existen diversos sistemas para proteger al vino de su oxidación, pudiendo conservar el vino un período de entre 2 y 5 semanas, todo ello con la protección de un gas inerte que provoca una atmósfera de protección sobre la superficie del vino que queda en la botella, sin alterar sus aromas y sabores.

Una oferta de vinos por copas nos puede permitir el enganchar y atraer más clientes, ofreciendo sugerencias más novedosas y sugestivas. Por ejemplo:

- Dando la posibilidad de catar un mismo vino de 3 ó 4 añadas diferentes (cata vertical).
- Diversos vinos de una misma variedad de uva, de la misma o diferente zona vitícola y que compartan la misma añada.
- Vinos con altas puntuaciones en las principales Guías Especializadas o Premiados en los Mejores Concursos internacionales.
- Propuestas de maridaje.
- Dar a probar muestras ante la duda de un cliente ante la posible elección de un vino, etc.


POLÍTICA DE PRECIOS

Considerar que a un vino se le debe de asignar un precio con un porcentaje altísimo es un error que cometen muchos empresarios del sector restauración. Debemos tener en cuenta que no podemos cargar unos precios desmesurados a los vinos, ya que ello repercutirá seriamente a la hora de la rotación de la bodega.

En teoría los precios del vino deberían ir en concordancia con los precios de la carta de comidas, no pudiendo superar el precio del vino un 25% el del total de la factura.

A pesar de las creencias populares, lo cierto es que en los vinos de menor precio de adquisición para el restaurante, el margen de beneficio es mayor que en los de mayor coste.


¿Cómo fijan los precios de los vinos los restaurantes?: Ésta es una pregunta que no resulta fácil contestar y más aún sabiendo que no todos los establecimientos de restauración comparten la misma estructura de costes.

- Aplicar un Coste Mínimo al Servicio del Vino: Dicho coste nos viene definido por las siguientes variables: Precio de compra; Impuestos indirectos; Lavado de copas; Almacenaje (el coste de inventario y del espacio para conservarlo), Roturas y Reposición; y el servicio de un sumiller.

- Muchos hacen un cálculo simple fijando el precio de la botella 3 veces más alto a su coste: Este gravamen del precio del vino viene dado porque por lo general es el mismo que se establece para los alimentos. Pero establecer esta relación directa entre comida y bebida es un error, puesto que, en circunstancias habituales, la comida precisa de una serie de transformaciones, mermas, elaboraciones y urgencias para su venta que nada tienen que ver con las atenciones que puede precisar un vino.


RENTABILIDAD Y ROTACIÓN DE LA CARTA DE VINOS

Para muchos negocios hosteleros, la carta de vinos representa el 40% de su facturación mensual.

Para que una carta de vinos sea rentable por lo general debe estar formada por vinos conocidos, puesto que el 80% de los clientes se decantaran por las marcas que ya conocen y le aportan seguridad. Pero para que una carta de vinos sea buena y este bien hecha tiene que tener al menos un 20% de vinos procedentes de pequeños productores artesanales donde la calidad-precio este presente, aquí es donde se crea una gran carta de vinos y se fideliza al cliente ofreciéndole productos de una calidad extraordinaria a precios muy razonables.

En zonas de producción vitivinícola la ecuación seria un 30% compromisos, es decir los mismos bodegueros y accionistas de las bodegas son clientes asiduos, que les gusta ver y consumir su vino en el restaurante, el otro 30% serían los vinos que realmente funcionan en la carta y el consumidor demanda mayoritariamente y el otro 30% serian novedades, curiosidades y vinos de alta calidad que prestigian la carta.


¿QUÉ PRECIO PONER AL VINO POR COPAS?

Cómo orientación general, los precios medios de venta de una copa de VCPRD pueden oscilar entre 2 € y 3,5 €. Es difícil vender una copa de vino por encima de 5 €.

Es importante priorizar el consumo rápido de la botella abierta frente al exceso de beneficio por copa que pueda implicar merma, especialmente en vinos espumosos y generosos.

- Vinos Tranquilos: Las 2 primeras copas deben pagar el precio de la botella.
- Vinos Espumosos: Las 3 primeras copas deben pagar el precio de la botella.
- Vinos Generosos y Dulces: Las 3 primeras copas deben pagar el precio de la botella.


EL VINO DE LA CASA

- Hostelería No Especializada: Utiliza el Vino de la Casa como el vino barato de muy alto rendimiento económico, dañaran su propia imagen y prestigio.
- Hostelería Especializada: Este vino es considerado la imagen del Restaurante y su máxima "declaración de intenciones" en materia de bebidas. Debe ser el vino de buena calidad, que se identifica con el estilo y la oferta gastronómica del Restaurante.

El precio es muy adecuado, debido a:
- Representa la imagen de calidad del Restaurante.
- El proveedor realiza un esfuerzo en el precio de cesión.
- Su posicionamiento como Vino de la Casa implica rotación y un mayor poder de compra.
- A mayor prestigio del Restaurante, mayor capacidad de dar imagen al vino seleccionado.
- Fuerte implicación local regional en la elección de este vino.


EL VINO DEL MENÚ DEL DÍA / MENÚ DE LA CASA

Vino incluido en el precio de un menú a precio cerrado (precios populares), con volumen de venta. Es de difícil rentabilidad si no se consigue un importante volumen de ventas.

En la actualidad, la cerveza, los refrescos cobran protagonismo y desplazan el consumo de vino en el menú. También ganan fuerza los "tintos de verano" o la "copa de vino" frente a la tradición de "vino con gaseosa".

El escandallo tipo de un menú del día es:
- Coste de Materias Primas (M.P.) = 23% a 35% del PVP del menú.
- En hoteles y hostelería organizada, del 18% al 25% del PVP
- Bebida no representa + del 20% del coste de M.P.
- Ejemplo menú de 10 € x 35% = 3,5 € coste de materias primas
3,5 € x 20% = 0,70 € coste de bebida (0,10 € agua, 0,60 € vino).


EL VINO DEL MENÚ EJECUTIVO

- Menú diario, válido para grupos, generalmente de servicio rápido y gastronomía de calidad para comensales con cierta cultura gastronómica.
- En muchas ocasiones el "Vino de la Casa" es el ofertado para el Menú Ejecutivo.
- En la actualidad se desarrolla una oferta de vinos por copas para el menú ejecutivo en establecimientos de calidad (aperitivo/entrante/principal o entrante/principal/postre).
- El abanico de Menú Ejecutivo es amplio, +- de 18 € a 45 € según categorías.
- El escandallo tipo de un menú del día es:
. Coste de Materias Primas (M.P.) = 18% al 25% del PVP del menú
. Bebida no Representad + del 25% del coste de M.P.
. Ejemplo: menú de 25 € x 25% = 6,25 € coste de materias primas
 6,25 € x 25%= 1,56 € coste de bebida (aprox, 0,10 € agua, 1,46 € vino).


PRECIOS DEL VINO EN LA CARTA / CRITERIOS FIJOS

Un criterio básico de fijación de precios, se debe calcular en función de la categoría, ubicación y elementos estructurales del establecimiento:
- Nivel de la oferta gastronómica, prestigio de Chef y Sumiller, RRHH.
- Calidad del surtido ofertado de vinos y otras bebidas; Nivel de productos, Añadas, etc.
- Cantidad de la oferta de vinos y otras bebidas; Número de referencias, Stocks y Rotación.
- Calidad y variedad de cristalería, vajilla y complementos.


GESTION DEL PRECIO DEL VINO EN HOSTELERÍA

Precio de Compra → Criterio de Fijacion PVP
Vinos con coste inferior a 2€ → Formula PVP= PC +10 € PVP Minimo 10€ (Máxima Beneficio 10€)
Vinos con coste entre 2€ y < 6€ → Formula PVP= PC +100% + 3 €
Vinos con coste entre 6€ y < 10€ → Precio de Venta = PC + 90% + 3 €
Vinos con coste entre 10€ y < 15€ → PVP= PC + 80% + 3 €
Vinos con coste entre 15€ y < 20€ → PVP= PC + 75% + 3 €
Vinos con coste entre 20€ y < 30€ → PVP= PC + 70% + 3 €
Vinos con coste entre 30€ y < 75€ → PVP= PC + 60% + 10 €
Vinos con coste entre 75€ y < 150€ → PVP= PC + 50% + 10 €
Vinos con coste a partir de 150€ → PVP= PC + 40% + 10 €


CRITERIO VARIABLE - EN FUNCIÓN DEL COMPORTAMIENTO DEL PRODUCTO

- Producto Interrogante (Niño): Bajo volumen de ventas pero amplio margen comercial. Vinos nuevos en el mercado o que no han tenido el éxito esperado.

Acciones: Potenciar para intentar llevarlo a "estrella" (nuevos o diferenciación). Estudiar la conveniencia de mantenerlos en surtido.

- Producto Estrella: Gran volumen de ventas y un amplio margen comercial. Vinos de moda y/o de diferenciación.

Acciones: Potenciar y consolidar su venta, estudiar su precio de venta (para mejorar margen o conseguir mayor volumen), negociar precio de compra, vigilar madurez de mercado.

- Producto Desastre (Perro): Bajo volumen de ventas y bajo margen comercial. Vinos que no han llegado a cuajar en mercado, vinos creados para competir con líderes de mercado o vinos de mucha imagen y escasa cuota de mercado.

Acciones: Minimizar el surtido, rápida sustitución, mantener únicamente algunos x imagen y prestigio.

- Producto Vaca Lechera: Gran volumen de ventas con bajo margen comercial. Vinos de mercado maduro, marcas consolidadas.

Acciones: Vigilar el posible declive, sensibles a precios de venta (vinos + conocidos que pueden aportar imagen de precio), conocer posibles alternativas, sustituir su venta s vinos estrella.


George Hill Wine Merchant in Loughborough (Leicestershire)

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GEORGE HILL WINE MERCHANT IN LOUGHBOROUGH (LEICESTERSHIRE)

George Hill Ltd is a provincial Wine Merchant, situated in the centre of Loughborough in Leicestershire.

One of the great advantages to buying wine from them is that they hold a range of regular customer events such as weekly tastings.

If you're looking to expand your drinking repertoire. From small and quirky through to ultra premium, here you will find the best combination of hard-to-get products and expert service.

- Name: George Hill LTD
- Adress: 59 Ward's End,Loughborough, Leicestershire County LE11 3HB, UK
- Phone: +44 1509 212717
- Fax: +44 01509 236963
- Web: www.georgehill.co.uk


The wine shop is easily accessible from the M1, M42, and A1:

- From the M1: Leave the motorway at Junction 23. Turn towards Loughborough (onto a dual carriageway). At first roundabout, go straight on. At second roundabout, turn right and continue to third roundabout. Turn left towards the town centre. After the dual carriageway ends the road will merge with a road on the right. Keep in the centre lane at this point as you approach traffic lights. Take central lane into town centre, and George Hill Limited is situated approx 150yards after a small carpark on the right.

- From Nottingham: Take the A60 towards Loughborough.  As you enter the town you will pass over the railway (the station will be on your right) and come to traffic lights.  Go straight on, and through a further two sets of lights.  At the third set of traffic lights turn left and follow road round to a fourth set of lights.  At these lights take the central lane (to go straight on) and cross the A6.  Follow this road round, through another set of lights until the road splits into two.  Take the right hand split and keep in the central lane at the next traffic lights.  Take the central lane into the town centre, and George Hill Limited is situated approx 150yards after a small carpark on the right.

- From Leicester: Take the main A6 to Loughborough. Upon entry into the town you will pass a cemetary on your left hand side. When you approach the traffic lights, take the right hand land and go straight on towards the town centre. You will pass through a further two sets of traffic lights. At the third set of traffic lights, turn left into the one way system. Follow this road, through another set of lights, until the road splits into two. Take the right hand split and keep in the central lane at the next traffic lights. Take the central lane into the town centre, and George Hill Limited is situated approx 150yards after a small carpark on the right.


WINE PRICE LIST

- Discounts: They offer a discount on most purchases of 12 assorted Wines, and include some Fortified wines in the selection. The discount given is usually 10%, but in a few instances could be less than this or even zero (this is to keep the 'shop price' as low as possible).  Discounts for purchases of larger quantities are available. Please email us them specific details.  Any wines on 'Special Offer' do not attract further discount, but can be included in the total number of bottles for discount.

- Vintages & EEO: You will notice that they do not show the vintage of many of their wines. These days with wines arriving from all over the world, it is difficult to keep up to date on the majority. Therefore unless it really makes a difference (such as top Bordeaux) they will offer you the current vintage unless they feel it is not up to standard.

- Payment: We accept most Credit/Debit cards and are also happy to arrange a Credit Account subject to the usual conditions and references. However they ask that you do not expect them to except a Credit Card payment after you have already taken a month's credit with them. They do of course have to pay a charge for all cards (Credit or Debit) and so to take credit with them and then expect them to pay a card charge is, they feel, 'pushing one's luck'.


- Delivery: They make regular deliveries in and around the area. For large parties they can also arrange collection of goods. You may also like to join their group of customers who have a regular monthly order delivered to their homes or offices, tailored especially to suit the particular customer, but chosen by them. This is definitely the best way to try something new.

- Gift Packaging: Their gift packaging service is available all year round. They specialise in putting together gifts to suit individuals and companies alike to suit any budget. They keep in stock a wide range of boxes, (both wooden and cardboard), baskets and other articles to gift wrap any item. They are usually able to do this while you wait, but at busier times of the year (like Christmas), or if you require a number of items, they do take orders on a first come first served basis, so the sooner you can let them know your requirements the better.

- Chocolates and Luxury Food Items: They carry a selection of Chocolates (Fine English and Belgian), and also carry a selection of luxury food items to complement their gift packaging service. A visit to the shop during the Autumn when their Christmas lines arrive is a must to see the enormous range of exciting goodies.


- Glasses: If you have never used ISO Tasting Glasses for your wine, you have missed an experience. Many of you have already tried them and found out just what a difference they make to the enjoyment of almost any wine.

- Glass Loan: They also keep a stock of regular glasses which are available on free loan when the goods are purchased from them. These are allocated on a first come first served basis, and get booked up quickly at busy times of the year. Remember to let them know your requirements as early as possible to ensure availability. They just ask that the glasses are returned to them clean.

- Tutored Wine Tastings: They can arrange tutored wine tastings for groups, wich is ideal for something to lighten your club AGM or an unusual idea for a get together with some friends at home. They can work to almost any budget and give you a fun filled evening that will hopefully leave you with a little more knowledge. Contact Andrew at the office on 01509 212717 or email them for more information.


WEDDING GIFT LISTS

These days when couples decide to formally 'tie the knot' they have often been sharing a home for some time and already have many of the items traditionally given as wedding gifts. Alternatively they may be joining two homes together, which probably means they already have the toaster, the dinner service, the pillows, sheets and even the garlic press.

What about offering your guests a list of wines you enjoy for them to select from as their gift to you? This can provide a fun and interesting alternative to a traditional list, and offers you the opportunity to enjoy your gifts as a couple, or with your family and friends on special occasions, future anniversaries and indeed for many years to come should you choose the right sort of products.

They will sit down with you to select a list of wines that you like at different price levels to fit all pockets. The team of knowledgeable staff will be able to give you any  help or advice that you need.


They usually recommend a list of around 12 - 15 different wines, but this is up to you and varies for everyone. Your guests will be able to buy as many or as few of the wines as they wish, up to a maximum level that you have selected for each product. They say wines, but maybe you want to include champagne, port, brandy, whisky, etc. The choice is yours.

Once you have finalised your list, they will let you have a copy so you can include it with your invitations, and they can also provide it by email so that they (or you) can email it out to your guests should you choose.  Guests will be able to contact them from the details included with your gift list and they will be able to leave you a personalised message when ordering.


You can either prearrange a specific date to have your wines delivered, or they can discuss it when you have returned from your honeymoon to reality. You might like to collect the wines yourselves or if you live a distance away they can arrange for a courier to bring them directly to you.

THey e will include a full list of all the items purchased showing who bought each gift and the personal message that they left you. You can of course contact them at any time before the wedding for an update. Please don't hesitate to contact them for any further information or to help you get a list set up.


HISTORY OF GEORGE HILL FINE WINES & FOOD

George Hill was a Lincolnshire farmer's son, who, in 1901 arrived in Leicestershire to work for the 'County Stores', a high quality grocery and provisions merchant.  He was, for some time, the manager of their shop, in the village of Quorn (or Quorndon). It was here that his daughter (Doris) and son (Eddie) were born.

In 1909, he started his own business in the nearby village of Sileby. Quickly growing in reputation, he bought out 'County Stores' in 1915. At this time, 'County Stores' also had large premises in the provincial market town of Loughborough. Here, George flourished and in due time was assisted by his son Eddie. The business became the largest wholesale grocery company in Leicestershire and, in fact, Loughborough's emergency rations were stored in the company cellars during the Second World War.


George became a pillar of the Town, being elected Mayor on two occasions. Renowned for his business acumen, he was, for two years in succession, the President of the Grocery Federation. During this time, Eddie became nationally known as an expert for Window Display, winning many competitions, including both the prestigious Daily Mail and the Daily Express Cups. As a result, the shop attracted many national visitors who wished to view the excellent displays.

George Hill died on Boxing Day in 1946. His son Eddie, continued to manage the business, which included the original shop plus another in the nearby village of Barrow-upon-Soar. Eddie and his wife Joan, had a family, two sons and a daughter, and by the early 1950's the company boasted the very first 'self-service' grocery store in the Midlands. It was during this time that the business gained the coveted Wine, Spirit and Beer Licence, not easily won in those days, so beginning a change in the style of trading. However, by 1960, competition became too strong and the very large town centre site was sold for development. The shop relocated to its present site, 300 metres from the Market Square.


Shortly before this, the company name was changed from 'County Stores Ltd' to 'George Hill (Grocers) Ltd', thus retaining George's name, which it had traded under for many years. This company name is still proudly retained, although it now trades as 'George Hill Limited of Loughborough' - to save confusion as the business is now primarily that of Wine Merchant.

Eddie was all set to enjoy the country house he had bought, and to watch his family grow up, but this was not to be. In 1961, he died from cancer, aged just 52, leaving Joan to carry on the tradition. She was assisted by her daughter Caroline, who had recently left college.


Coincidently, Ronald, the eldest son, became an accountant, and in 1964, Andrew, the youngest son, and the present Managing Director, left school to start his career in The Wine Trade.

For a while Andrew worked with a provincial Wine Merchant in Derby, then spent time in London learning the 'top end of the Trade'. Here he did everything from bottling and working on the delivery lorries, to answering the telephone and delivering single bottles to Embassies. However, more tough times were ahead, and with the abolition of fixed prices in 1967 everyone had to take a cut in salary. Andrew's travel plans were curtailed, and it was not until the middle 1970's that he began to explore the wine regions of the world.


In 1975, Andrew won a National Scholarship from the Wine & Spirit Education Trust. This gave him the confidence to develop and invoke his unique style, and he quickly gained a passion and love for his subject. Soon, he was eagerly helping others to learn and enjoy the produce of the vine.

After returning to Loughborough and the family business, Andrew quickly developed a reputation of honest trading, passionate opinions (sometimes too strong) and an enthusiasm, that  has swept his customers along to this day. For most of the time he happily worked alongside his sister Caroline, who was the 'office rock' and his mother Joan, who, whilst technically the 'boss', remained passively in the background, giving occasional support and advice.


Joan passed away in 1983 with cancer, and the disease cruelly struck yet again in 1991 when Caroline died tragically at the age of 49. She left a husband, David, and three daughters: Gillian, Judith and Susan. Gillian, the eldest, had by then joined the firm, thus ensuring that the fourth generation of the family had joined the team.

Today, Andrew still leads his small team of enthusiastic and knowledgeable employees. Gillian is now the Company Secretary and is often accompanied during the school holidays by her three children Jacob, Eleanor and Alex who at seventeen, fourteen and eleven respectively, make sure they are known to all.  They were also joined in 1989 by Lee Costelow, as Shop Manager and in April 2003 by Caroline's youngest daughter Susan as the Office Administrator. Her three children, Isobel (twelve), Emily (eight) and Freddie (six) regularly join their cousins in the office during the holidays. At the beginning of 2008 Judith's husband, Richard Coles, also joined the team as the driving force behind our Trade Sales, to give Andrew more time to explore other areas of the business.  With their two children, Nicola (fourteen) and Charlotte (eleven) making the total up to eight, might they have the fifth generation there. In the summer of 2014 Brigg Ferrier arrived part time after completing his Wine & Spirit Education Advanced Certificate and wanting a change of career.


Andrew continues to refuse to lower the quality of wine he buys, although, in the hard pressed and competitive trade of the new millennium, he is aware that the general public and the Restaurant/Hotel Trade are price conscious. He will not buy a wine just because it is fashionable, it must have its place in the portfolio and the market place. The company is sometimes regarded as quirky, occasionally eccentric, and often 'unique'. One thing is sure, they are all individuals, giving as good as they get, but readily willing to help and make sure the correct choice is made.

Maybe, Andrew's comments are to be heeded: "If we can sell wine that is well made, at a fair price, being a good example of what it purports to be and is right for the job, we have done ours. My biggest pleasure is when a customer returns for more".


THE TEAM OF KNOWLEDGEABLE STAFF

- Andrew Hill: Andrew is the Grandson of the Founder, and is the Managing Director of George Hill Ltd.

As well as being the primary buyer, Andrew also creates Wine Lists for the trade customers and is on hand to give advice and guidance to customers in the shop.

Property is also a passion, so watch out, if you live locally he might actually know more about your property than you do.


- Lee Costelow: Lee has been part of the George Hill family for the past 25 years. Amongst many jobs, he keeps the shop and the warehouses running smoothly, gets your orders ready, dresses the shop window with his artistic flair and helps people with their menu challenges.

Outside of the office he is a keen cook and 'foodie' and enjoys the challenge of food and wine pairing.

He was also part of the Loughborough Amateur Theatre scene for nearly 40 years before retiring 'gracefully' a few years ago.


- Richard Coles: Richard, who is Gillian and Susan's Brother In Law, joined the team in December 2007.

He and Brigg are now the driving force behind the trade sales, giving Andrew time to concentrate in other areas. He is also to be found regularly in and around the shop or dropping off orders.

He loves port and big chunky Italian red wines, and he also have a distinction in his Wine and Spirit Education Trust Advanced Certificate.

Out of work, Richard loves his family, lure fishing, woodworking and sleeping in the woods.


- Gillian Leeson: Gillian is a Great Granddaughter of the Founder and daughter of Caroline (Andrew's late Sister), she joined George Hill in 1989.

Gillian runs the purchase ledger and sorts out the money. She designs the Website and most of the artwork for both the Company and on behalf of Customers, She also creates many of the bespoke gift packages available.

Textiles and running are her current passions (as well as her husband Garry) and so if you can't find her under a mountain of costumes at the sewing machine, it's probably best to check 'Garmin Livetrack' or 'Map My Run' to find out where she is.


- Susan Laxton: Susan is also one of George's Great Grandaughters and Gillian's sister.

She joined the team as the Office Administrator in May 2003, and is finding it hard to believe she's old enough to have worked anywhere for over a decade.

The sales ledger fills much of Sue's day, so watch out if you owe them some money or she'll be knocking on your door.

She can also be found creating gift packages, and giving a hand in the Shop amongst many other things.

In the rest of her life she's a real "hootin''n' tootin' cowgirl " and spends much time with Carter dreaming of living on a ranch in Nevada.


- Brigg Ferrier: Brigg joined them in the summer of 2014 having spent twenty three years in textile retailing, whilst persuing his love of wine as an amateur by passing the Wine & Spirit Education Trusts Intermediate & Advanced Certificates with distinction.

He manages the trade accounts and deliveries with Richard and helps in the shop.

After work and his family, he enjoys cooking, cycling, cricket and Leicester Tigers.


URBINA RIOJA WINE TASTING & TAPAS

Rioja evening with Pedro Benito Urbina from Bodegas Urbina at The Horse in Shepshed. Those lucky enough to get tickets on time, will be able to taste some fabulous Urbina wines.

Bodegas Urbina is a family-owned, single estate winery with 75 Ha. of  vineyards. Since 1870 four generations have been dedicated to the cultivation of their vineyards and the production of wine whose sole objetive is the quality of its wines.


The wines are a conjunction of grapes from Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón, on the north-western edge of D.O.C. Rioja, that produces wines with a great capacity for ageing, excellent for Grandes Reservas  and from the vineyards of Uruñuela, which are situated in the heart of the Denomination producing wines of great consistency and body, but very pleasant.

Bodegas Urbina produces wines bottles derived from grapes of their own vineyards, cultivated using traditional techniques, harvesting by hand and avoiding the use of weed killers and pesticides.


The vines grow bush and some are trained by cordon with controlled yields not exceeding 4500 kgrs/Ha.

In the vineyard a respectful viticulture is applied using organic fertilization in order to keep soil richness and structure that will feed the vines from which we will produce the wine.

During fermentation local yeasts are employed, which transfer to the wine a unique personality giving to Urbina its characteristic complexity.


Urbina 2013 Blanco £10.39

- Tasting note: Pale golden yellow colour with green glints. Aromatic, floral nose (acacia) with white fruit, melon and ripe citrus notes. Good body and structure, flavours of apricot, peach asnd some pear notes with a subtle, elegant, slightly and lingering finish.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Alcohol volume: 12%

- Viticulture: Wine produced from the local Viura variety, cultivated in vineyards with calcareous clay soils, wich are excellent for the elaboration of complex and elegant white wines with finesse.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers headed by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: The viura is sourced from vineyards with average vine age of 30 years old with calcareous and alluvial soils. The wine undergoes a cold maceration prior to alcoholic fermentation wich is in temperature controlled staniless steel vats. The wine is then left to age on the lees wich gives it extra elegance and complexity.


Urbina 2014 Rosado £10.39

- Tasting note: Bright, delicate, pale, salmon pink colour. Dominated by aromas of red fruits including strawberry, cherry and cranberry with delicate floral notes. Excellent weight packed with summer berry fruits, strawberry, hints of grapefruit and crisp Granny Smith apples. The finish is creamy yet crisp, dry and long. A great Rioja Rosado.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: The rosado is produced with grapes from various parcels to enhance the desired finesse and complexity. Aproximately 80% Tempranillo and 20% Garnacha.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: This delicated rosado is from first press must (using the Saingrée method). It is fermented slowly and gently at a low temperature 16-17º followed by cold stabilisation to enchance the varietal character of the grapes.


Urbina 2008 Crianza £13.69

- Tasting note: Ruby colour with garnet hues. On the nose, good intensity with elegant, mature and cherries, vanilla, coconout and spice on the nose. On the palate, well-balanced and complexed, creamy smooth, velvety texture of red berries, nuts and spice flavours with firm tannins and background, good structure, long lasting, with persistent aftertaste. Pleasant and easy-drinking.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13,5%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from over 25+ year old vines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: This Crianza is fermented at 28º C and macerated for 26 days in stainless steel tanks. The wine is aged in oak for 12 months after which it is bottled and remains at the cellar for a further 6 months before release. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


Urbina 1999 Selección £16.98

- Tasting note: Intense, dark ruby red colour. Very concentrated nose of berries, damsons, and figs. On the palate, full-bodied, rich fruit cake and savoury vanilla flavours, well-structured, mellow, firm tannins with the fine elegance of the Urbina marque.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: 100% Tempranillo

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines used for the production of Reserva / Gran Reserva wines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28º C and macerated for 28 days. Aged for at least 15 months in oak casks. The wine will develop into a fine Reserva within 4 years if conserved at a temperature between 15º and 18º.


Urbina 1998 Reserva Especial (Blue label) £19.98

- Tasting note: Dark ruby red colour with amber glints. On the nose, good intensity. It has a very pronounced nose of seductive figs, apricots, nuts, savoury vanilla oak bouquet. On the palate, voluptuous, sweet middle palate with delicious, concentrated ripe berry, mature fruit broadening out. Wonderful length, classy and complex wine.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+year old vines used for the production Gran Reserva wines.

- Enology: The wine is producec by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28º and macerated for 28 days in stainless steel tanks. Aged 2 years in French and American oak and a further 2 year in bottle before release. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


Urbina 1996 Gran Reserva £22.50

- Tasting note: Colour reddish garnet. On the nose, powerful, complex and elegant. Rich vegetable and tobacco aromas, a perfect harmony of oak and glorious fruit. On the palate, intense rich fruit, prunes, dates and sweet raisin flavours, silky and creamy. A wine with great finesse and velvet smoothness, wondrous length and full finish.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28ºC and macerated for 28 days. Aged for a least 36 months in oak casks and a further 48 months in bottle before relaease. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


PEDRO BENITO URBINA (OENOLOGIST - SOMMELIER - WINEMAKER)

- Title: Vinegrower - Oenologist - Sommelier - Winemaker
- Company Name: Bodegas Urbina - Since 2005 to present (10 years).
- Location: Calle Campillo 34 - 35 Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón (La Rioja - España).

Professional Experience:
- 2014 Appointed new member of the "Cofradía del Vino de Rioja".
- 2012 Partner of the newspaper "Diario La Rioja". Spreading the culture of wine, with a full page every week. Seventh oldest newspaper in Spain that publishes and distributes since 1889, with a current circulation of about 16,000 copies a day.
- 2010 Appointed member of the "Association of sommeliers from Rioja".
- 2009 Nominated Golden Nose of La Rioja (The most prestigious sommelier competition in Spain): Over 400 working professionals attend each year to become the new Golden Nose.
- 2006 Appointed member of the Committees Tasting the Regulatory Council of the Denomination of Origin Rioja.
- 2005-2014 Bodegas Urbina (La Rioja - Spain): Head of Sales; Development and production of wine; Maintenance of the vineyard.
- 2003-2004 Frey Vineyards (California - USA): Organization and presentation of wine tastings; Representative at trade shows; Winemaking and wine production; Maintenance Vineyard.

Education:
- 2004-2005 Technician in wine making: I.E.S Duques de Najera, Logroño (La Rioja - Spain)
- 1999-2003 BS Business Administration / Marketing - Business Studies (San Jose State University, San Jose, USA)
- 1998-1999 Ukiah High School, USA


LA RIOJA WINE REGION

Rioja is a wine region, with Denominación de Origen Calificada (D.O.Ca. Qualified designation of origin) named after La Rioja, in Spain. Rioja is made from grapes grown not only in the Autonomous Community of La Rioja, but also in parts of Navarre and the Basque province of Álava. Rioja is further subdivided into three zones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Baja and Rioja Alavesa. Many wines have traditionally blended fruit from all three regions though there is a slow growth in single-zone wines.


- Geography and climate: Located south of the Cantabrian Mountains along the Ebro river, La Rioja benefits from a continental climate. The mountains help to isolate the region which has a moderating effect on the climate. They also protect the vineyards from the fierce winds that are typical of northern Spain.

The region is also home to the Oja river (Rio Oja), believed to have given the region its name. Most of the region is situated on a plateau, a little more than 1,500 feet (460 m) above sea level. The area is subdivided into three regions: Rioja Alavesa, Rioja Alta, and Rioja Baja.

La Rioja Alavesa and la Rioja Alta, located closer to the mountains, are at slightly higher elevations and have a cooler climate. La Rioja Baja to the southeast is drier and warmer. Annual rainfall in the region ranges from 12 inches (300 mm) in parts of Baja to more than 20 inches (510 mm) in La Rioja Alta and Alavesa. Many of Rioja's vineyards are found along the Ebro valley between the towns of Haro and Alfaro.


- Viticulture and grapes: Rioja wines are normally a blend of various grape varieties, and can be either red (tinto), white (blanco) or rosé (rosado). La Rioja has a total of 57,000 hectares cultivated, yielding 250 million litres of wine annually, of which 85% is red. The harvest time for most Rioja vineyards is September–October with the northern Rioja Alta having the latest harvest in late October. The soil here is clay based with a high concentration of chalk and iron. There is also significant concentration of limestone, sandstone and alluvial silt.

Among the tintos, the best-known and most widely used variety is Tempranillo. Other grapes used include Garnacha Tinta, Graciano, and Mazuelo. A typical blend will consist of approximately 60% Tempranillo and up to 20% Garnacha, with much smaller proportions of Mazuelo and Graciano. Each grape adds a unique component to the wine with Tempranillo contributing the main flavors and aging potential to the wine; Garnacha adding body and alcohol; Mazuelo adding seasoning flavors and Graciano adding additional aromas. Some estates have received special dispensation to include Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend due to historical inclusion of that grape in their wine that predates the formation of the Consejo Regulador.


With Rioja Blanco, Viura is the prominent grape (also known as Macabeo) and is normally blended with some Malvasía and Garnacha blanca. In the white wines the Viura contributes mild fruitness, acidity and some aroma to the blend with Garnacha blanca adding body and Malvasía adding aroma. Rosados are mostly derived from Garnacha grapes. The "international varieties" of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot have gained some attention and use through experimental plantings by some bodegas but their use has created wines distinctly different from the typical Rioja.

Some of the most sought after grapes come from the limestone/sandstone based "old vine" vineyards in the Alavesa and Alta regions. The 40 year plus old vines are prized due to their low yields and more concentrated flavors. A unique DO regulation stipulates that the cost of the grapes used to make Rioja must exceed by at least 200% the national average of wine grapes used in all Spanish wines.


- Winemaking and styles: A distinct characteristic of Rioja wine is the effect of oak aging. First introduced in the early 18th century by Bordeaux influenced winemakers, the use of oak and the pronounced vanilla flavors in the wines has been a virtual trademark of the region though some modern winemakers are experimenting with making wines less influenced by oak. Originally French oak was used but as the cost of the barrels increased many bodegas began to buy American oak planks and fashion them into barrels at Spanish cooperages in a style more closely resembling the French method. This included hand splitting the wood, rather than sawing, and allowing the planks time to dry and "season" in the outdoors versus drying in the kiln. In recent times, more bodegas have begun using French oak and many will age wines in both American and French oak for blending purposes.


In the past, it was not uncommon for some bodegas to age their red wines for 15–20 years or even more before their release. One notable example of this the Marqués de Murrieta which released its 1942 vintage gran reserva in 1983 after 41 years of aging. Today most bodegas have shifted their winemaking focus to wines that are ready to drink sooner with the top wines typically aging for 4–8 years prior to release though some traditionalists still age longer. The typical bodega owns anywhere from 10,000 to 40,000 oak barrels.

The use of oak in white wine has declined significantly in recent times when before the norm was traditionally 2–5 years in oak. This created slightly oxidized wines with flavors of caramel, coffee, and roasted nuts that did not appeal to a large market of consumers with some of the more negative examples showing characteristics of rubber and petrol flavors. Today the focus of white wine makers has been to enhance the vibrancy and fruit flavors of the wine.

Some winemakers utilize a derivative of carbonic maceration in which whole clusters are placed in large open vats allowed to ferment inside the individual grape berries, without the addition of yeast, for a few days before they are crushed.


- Classification: Rioja red wines are classified into four categories. The first, simply labeled Rioja, is the youngest, spending less than a year in an oak aging barrel. A crianza is wine aged for at least two years, at least one of which was in oak. Rioja Reserva is aged for at least three years, of which at least one year is in oak. Finally, Rioja Gran Reserva wines have been aged at least two years in oak and three years in bottle. Reserva and Gran Reserva wines are not necessarily produced each year. Also produced are wines in a semi-crianza style, those that have had a couple of months oak influence but not enough to be called a full crianza. The designation of crianza, Reserva etc. might not always appear on the front label but may appear on a neck or back label in the form of a stamp designation known as Consejo.

- Wineries: In Spain, wineries are commonly referred to as bodegas though this term may also refer to a wine cellar or warehouse. For quite some time, the Rioja wine industry has been dominated by local family vineyards and co-operatives that have bought the grapes and make the wine. Some bodegas would buy fermented wine from the co-ops and age the wine to sell under their own label. In recent times there has been more emphasis on securing vineyard land and making estate bottled wines from the bodegas.


GEORGE HILL LTD OF LOUGHBOROUGH - RIOJA SINGLE BOTTLE PRICES

- Urbina Blanco 2013 - £8.88
- Urbina Crianza 2008 - £13.60
- Urbina Seleccion 1999 - £16.98
- Urbina Gran Reserva 1996 - £20.72

- Muga Blanco 12/13 (barrel fermented) - £11.30
- Muga Rosado 2012/3 - £10.40
- Muga Reserva 2009/10 - £17.40

- M. de Murrieta 'Capellania'  Res. (Blanco) - £19.98
- Marq. de Murrieta Tinto Res '09 - £19.95
- Marques de M - Gran Reserva - £29.97
- M. de Murrieta Tinto Res MAG. - £41.70
- M/ta Castillo Ygay Tinto  Res Esp - 2004/5 - £63.50

- El Coto Blanco - £8.93
- El Coto Rose - £8.93
- El Coto Crianza 2009 - £10.86
- Coto de Imaz Reserva - £14.45
- Coto de Imaz Gran Reserva - £21.54
- El Coto Crianza - Mags - £21.75

Evolución y Presencia de los Residuos de Plaguicidas - La Rioja

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EVOLUCIÓN Y PRESENCIA DE LOS RESIDUOS DE PLAGUICIDAS - LA RIOJA

Fuente:
Universidad de La Rioja - Comunicación

Investigadores de la UR y el IRNASA estudian la evolución y persistencia de los residuos de plaguicidas en suelos de viñedos de la DOCa Rioja.

Investigadores de la Universidad de La Rioja (UR) y del Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC) han publicado sendos artículos sobre la evolución de residuos de plaguicidas en suelos de viñedos de La Rioja.

La revista Enoviticultura ha publicado el artículo ‘Evolución de residuos de plaguicidas en suelos de viñedos de La Rioja' en su número 35, mientras que Science of the Total Environment ha publicado el artículo ‘Pesticide residues in vineyard soils from Spain: spatial and temporal distributions’.

Los artículos están firmados por Marisol Andrades, profesora del Departamento de Agricultura y Alimentación de la Universidad de La Rioja, y los investigadores del Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Salamanca (IRNASA-CSIC) de Salamanca: Eliseo Herrero Hernández, M.ª Jesús Sánchez Martín, Sonia Rodríguez Cruz y Eva Pose-Juan.

El uso de plaguicidas en el sector agrícola ha proporcionado enormes beneficios debido al aumento de la producción y a la calidad de las cosechas, ya que las plagas y enfermedades dañan hasta un tercio de los cultivos en las fases de crecimiento, cosecha y almacenamiento.

Los plaguicidas son considerados contaminantes del medio ambiente debido a su potencial toxicidad y a su uso generalizado. Algunos tienen una vida media corta y en consecuencia son poco persistentes, mientras otros tienen una vida larga y por tanto son persistentes.

La persistencia de los plaguicidas puede provocar la contaminación del suelo y de las aguas superficiales y subterráneas y en consecuencia una pérdida de calidad en los alimentos y en el agua de bebida.

De hecho, en los últimos años ha habido un incremento en el número de casos descritos de contaminación de las aguas por los plaguicidas y esto ha llevado a la Unión Europea (UE) a la promulgación de leyes para proteger el medio ambiente de la contaminación por el uso de estos compuestos.

Sin embargo, a pesar del riesgo potencial de contaminación del agua debido a la presencia temporal o permanente de estos compuestos, la existencia de residuos en suelos no está regulada y existen pocos estudios sobre la presencia de residuos de plaguicidas en suelos.

PLAGUICIDAS EN LA DOC RIOJA

En la DOCa Rioja la viticultura requiere la aplicación de grandes cantidades de plaguicidas (más de 12 kg de herbicidas, insecticidas y fungicidas por hectárea). No hay informes sobre los niveles de residuos de plaguicidas en los suelos de esta zona, aunque estudios previos han identificado la presencia de algunos plaguicidas en aguas superficiales y subterráneas en niveles superiores a 0,1 μg L–1.

Los resultados obtenidos en el trabajo realizado revelaron la presencia de los herbicidas, fungicidas e insecticidas estudiados en suelos muestreados en las tres subzonas de la DOCa Rioja a los diferentes tiempos de muestreo, manifestando así una persistencia ambiental con potencial toxicológico.

Las concentraciones de herbicidas detectados en los suelos durante las tres campañas de muestreo reveló diferencias significativas, siendo las concentraciones detectadas en marzo superiores a las encontradas en junio y octubre, que fueron similares. Sin embargo no hubo diferencias significativas entre las concentraciones de fungicidas e insecticidas detectadas en los diferentes tiempos de muestreo.

Este patrón parece coherente con la aplicación de herbicidas para la preparación inicial de los suelos y la posterior aplicación de fungicidas e insecticidas de acuerdo con las prácticas agrícolas programadas para los viñedos de la región.

Es especialmente relevante la presencia del fungicida metalaxil, los herbicidas terbutilazina y fluometuron y el insecticida metoxifenozida. Los resultados están de acuerdo con los niveles de estos compuestos encontrados en aguas superficiales y subterráneas de la región en estudios anteriores llevados a cabo por los autores, y que ponen de relieve la necesidad de implementar estrategias para una aplicación más eficiente de estos compuestos sin el riesgo de contaminación del agua.

FUNGICIDA METALAXIL

La acilalanina es un fungicida empleado en agronomía. Es uno de los mejores fungicidas sistémicos aplicables frente a oomicetes, como son Pythium y Phytophthora, así como varios mildius. Su representante más importante es el metalaxyl, si bien se vende como Ridomil©, directamente aplicable sobre el follaje o suelo; como Apron es válido para tratar semillas, y como suavizador para céspedes y ornamentales. De carácter persistente, controla la biota micológica de suelos y semillas evitando la aparición de ahogamientos de plántulas y pudriciones varias, que son los síntomas más usuales de los oomicetos Pythium y Phytophtora; no obstante, también se emplea para evitar la aparición de cancros ocasionados por este último, así como ciertos mildius. Posee actividad biológica incluso cuando la enfermedad está ya instaurada, no sólo como profiláctico. Hidrosoluble, se transloca vía xilema desde las raíces de la planta a la parte aérea, aunque su transporte lateral es más lento. Puesto que existen patógenos resistentes, se recomienda su uso combinado con otros fungicidas de amplio espectro.

- Impacto ambiental: Se ha estudiado la toxicidad del Metil N-(metoxiacetil)-N-(2,6-xilil)-D-alaninatoMetil (R)-2-{[(2,6-dimetilfenil) metoxiacetil] amino} propionato, una acilalanina, encontrándose que es tóxica para toda clase de mamíferos, algunas aves y pocos animales acuáticos; no obstante, no es prácticamente tóxico para organismos acuáticos como la trucha o Daphnia ni para las abejas.

HERBICIDAS TERBUTILAZINA Y FLUMETURON

Un herbicida es un producto fitosanitario utilizado para eliminar plantas indeseadas. Algunos actúan interfiriendo con el crecimiento de las malas hierbas y se basan frecuentemente en las hormonas de las plantas.

- Terbutilazina: Es un herbicida selectivo. Químicamente, es una clorotriazina; en comparación con la atrazina y simazina, tiene un grupo terc-butilo en lugar de los grupos isopropilo y etilo, respectivamente.

- Fluometurón: Es un herbicida. En los Estados Unidos se ha aprobado para su uso en los cultivos de algodón y caña de azúcar en 1974, pero desde 1986 sólo está aprobado para su uso en el algodón.

TERBUTILAZINA


Identificación:
- Nombre químico: 2-tert-butilamino-4-cloro-6-etilamino-1,3,5-triazina,
- Nombre común: terbuthylazine (ANSI, ISO, WSSA),
- Códigos alfanuméricos: CA DPR Chem Code 3004. CAS 5915-41-3. CIPAC 234. GS 13529. PC Code 080814.

- Sustancia activa: Triazina sistémica con actividad herbicida, de absorción radical y muy débilmente foliar. Se trasloca a través del xilema hacia los puntos de acción. Interfiere la función clorofílica por inhibición de la transferencia de electrones en el receptor del fotosistema II en la reacción de Hill, y de la absorción de CO2.

En el suelo se produce, por vía microbiana, una desmetilación de la cadena lateral, una hidroxilación que resulta de la hidrólisis de los átomos de Cl y del grupo amino desmetilado y la ruptura del anillo. Su vida media en el suelo es de 30-90 días, según tipo de suelo. La adsorción por los coloides del suelo es muy elevada siendo su índice de lixiviación 3, el de la simazina 5, y el de la atrazina 10. Las plantas tolerantes la descloran rápidamente y la convierten en hidroxi terbutilazina.

- Campo de actividad: Se consideran especies sensibles: bledos (Ips shinanoensis), Anthemis spp. (manzanillas borde), bolsa de pastor (Capsella bursa-pastoris), cenizo blanco (Chenopodium album), Chrysanthemum coronarium (flor de muerto), pata de gallina (Digitaria sanguinalis), rabaniza blanca (Diplotaxis erucoides), Echinochloa spp. (gramas de agua), amor del hortelano (Galium aparine), Malva spp. (malva), Matricaria spp. (magarzas), Medicago spp. (alfalfas), Poa spp. (poas), centinodia (Polygonum aviculare), Polygonum lapathifolium (persicaria mayor), verdolaga (Portulaca oleracea), rábano silvestre (Raphanus raphanistrum), Rumex spp. (acederas, acederillas), Senecio vulgaris (hierba cana), Setaria spp. (almorejos), mostaza silvestre (Sinapis arvensis), Sonchus asper (cerraja común), Sonchus oleraceus (cerraja), alsine (Stellaria media), hierba mora (Solanum nigrum), Veronica spp. (verónicas), etc. Son resistentes: Convolvulus arvensis (corregüela), Cynodon dactylon (grama), Cyperus rotundus (juncia), Daucus carota (zanahoria silvestre), etc.

Sus formulaciones con bromoxinil o s-metolacloro pueden ser utilizadas en maíz; con fluometuron en algodón.

- Recomendaciones de uso: Se ha utilizado como esterilizante del suelo y en tierras sin cultivo. Puede aplicarse en preemergencia o postemergencia temprana. Fitotóxico para muchas plantas anuales y acuáticas. Es necesario que llueva después del tratamiento. No utilizar en suelos muy arenosos o pedregosos. Son muy numerosas las formulaciones de terbutilazina con otros herbicidas. La restricción impuesta a la terbutilazina prohibe utilizar más de 1 kg de s.a./ha y año.
Según el Reglamento de inclusión en el Anejo I se prestará especial atención a: la protección de las aguas subterráneas cuando la sustancia activa se aplique en regiones de condiciones edáficas o climáticas delicadas; el riesgo para los mamíferos y las lombrices de tierra. Cuando proceda, las condiciones de uso deberán incluir medidas de reducción del riesgo y la obligación de poner en práctica programas de seguimiento para verificar la posible contaminación de las aguas subterráneas en zonas vulnerables.

- Situación en el registro de la UE: Incluido en el Anejo I según el Reglamento de Ejecución (UE) nº 820/2011 de la Comisión de 16 de agosto de 2011 [DO L 209 de 17.08.2011]. Notificador: Syngenta.

INSECTICIDA METOXIFENOZIDA


Identificación:
- Nombre químico: N-ter-butil-N''-(3-metoxi-o-toluil)-3,5-xilohidrazida,
- Nombre común: methoxyfenozide (ANSI, ISO),
- Códigos alfanuméricos: CA DPR Chem Code 5698. CAS 161050-58-4. CIPAC 656. PC Code 121027. RH 2485. RH 112485.

- Sustancia activa: Diacilhidracina con actividad insecticida. Actúa principalmente por ingestión y en algunos casos por contacto; con actividad sistémica en las raíces. No posee propiedades traslaminares ni sistémicas por el floema. Específico contra orugas y huevos de Lepidópteros. Se enlaza con la proteína receptora de la ecdisona de las orugas y ocasiona el cese de la alimentación e induce una prematura muda que es mortal. Es una forma de actuar similar a las del tebufenocida y halofenocida pero no a las de las hormonas juveniles y de las benzilfenilureas con las que no cesan de alimentarse los insectos.
En el suelo se fotoliza con una vida media de 173 días. En el campo se degrada con una vida media de 23 a 268 días.

- Campo de actividad: A las dosis adecuadas resulta efectivo en el control de: agusanado de las manzanas y peras (Cydia pomonella), capua de los frutales (Adoxophyes orana), gardama (Spodoptera exigua), minador de las hojas de los cítricos (Phyllocnistis citrella), minador punteado de las hojas del peral (Phyllonorycter blancardella), minadora de los brotes del melocotonero (Anarsia lineatella), oruga medidora del tomate (Chrysodeixis chalcites), pandemis del peral y del manzano (Pandemis heparana), polilla del racimo (Lobesia botrana), polilla del racimo (Eupoecilia ambiguella), polilla oriental del melocotonero (Grapholita molesta) y rosquilla negra (Spodoptera littoralis) y otros Lepidópteros en cultivos de mandarino, manzano, melocotonero, naranjo, nectarino, peral, pimiento, tomate y vid.

- Recomendaciones de uso: No fitotóxico. Apto para ser empleado en lucha integrada.

- Situación en el registro de la UE: Incluido en el Anejo I según la Directiva 2005/3/CE de la Comisión de 19 de enero de 2005 [DO L 20 de 22.01.2005]. Reglamento de Ejecución (UE) nº 540/2011 de la Comisión de 25 de mayo de 2011 por el que se aplica el Reglamento (CE) nº 1107/2009 del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo en lo que respecta a la lista de sustancias activas autorizadas.

Vin Neuf Independent Wine Merchants in Stratford

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VIN NEUF - INDEPENDENT WINE MERCHANTS IN STRATFORD-UPON-AVON (WARWICKSHIRE - ENGLAND)

It is the first retail shop in Stratford-upon-Avon. They benefit from being positioned in the centre of the town and because they have a unique cellar and tasting forum.

Vin Neuf Limited, is a family run independent wine merchants specialising in Fine Wines, Champagnes, Ports and Sherries from around the world.

They supply to the restaurant trade as well as retail customers. 

But no matter how large or small your order is, they will be delighted to tailor their wines to meet your requirement.

They also regularly cater for weddings, corporate events, wine tastings at the shop, parties, or private events.


- Name: Vin Neuf Limited
- Adress: 9 Union St, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire CV37 6QT, UK
- Telephone: 01789 261 747
- Email: info@vinneuf.co.uk
- Web: www.vinneuf.com
- Opening Hours: Monday 9.30am – 4pm / Tuesday – Saturday 9.30am – 6.30pm


BUYING FROM AN INDEPENDENT WINE MERCHANT

Most of wine retailers generally stocking the same wines, such as hig street chains and supermarkets. Together they account for the largest proportion of the total UK wine sales, about 80%.

Vin Neuf, as an Independent Wine Merchants, strives to offer more of a interesting and carefully selected range of wines, many of which are not necessarily more expensive. They are also always interested and very happy to hear of wines you like and where possible will source them for you and even stock them.

If you’re serious about developing a wine collection, enjoy their splendid array of wines, they specialise in a particular region or country and provide bespoke advice. In the case of Vin Neuf, they maintain their focus on wines from the Languedoc-Roussillon (and neighbouring regions), but they also have a very healthy portfolio of other wines from around the globe.


Apart from one-on-one service, independent wine merchants can offer range where the bigger players (supermarkets), cannot. We're not simply talking about the number of wines stocked; we're talking about a mixture of small-scale, off-the-beaten track, artisan producers alongside low-volume, super-premium classics from those with established and well-earned reputations. And if they don´t carry it, then in many cases the staff or owner will blend over backwards trying to track it down for you.

The more information that you can give your local independent abotu what you like to drink. Including price, variety, country, style, loves and hates, etc. The closer theyáre likely to get to finding you something that really stacks up. From here the trick is letting them lead you. Allow them to show you new thing.

The other great advantage to buying wine from an independent wine merchant is that in most cases they'll offer a mailing list, which I'd strongly recommend you join. Mailing lists are a great way to find out about a range of regular customer events such as weekly tastings; if you're looking to expand your drinking repertoire, these offer the perfect opportunity to try before you buy. From small and quirky through to ultra premium, this is often where you'll find the best combination of hard-to-get products and expert service.


MODERN BRITAIN WINE MERCHANTS

A merchant is a businessperson engaged in retail trade. Wine merchants are almost as important to de wine world as producers and consumers, and may have been for at least four millennia.

The British wine merchant is, almost necessarily, an importer, or a customer of one. Wine merchants were important in medieval England and Gascony, when they were known as vintners in English.

Even today, a wine merchant in Britain enjoys a social standing perceptibly higher than that of, for example, a grocer. This is somewhat ironic since the majority of wine sold in Britain has been sold by grocers, as opposed to specialists, since at least 1987. This was largely due to the efforts of the licensed supermarkets to improve the range and quality of wines they sell, although it is also simply a function of the fact that so many Britons pass through a supermarket at some point very week.

The independent specialist wine merchant has to struggle to compete with the low margins funded by the sheer quantity of wine a chain of supermarkets can sell. They do so by offering personal service, advice, sale or return facilities, credit, mail order, glass loan, and so on, with the supermarkets and such specialist chains as have survived the onslaught of competition from supermarkets hot on their heels.


THE TEAM OF KNOWLEDGEABLE STAFF

Any independent wine shop worth its salt will have people who know more than just a little standing behind the counter, which often will mean the owner. The best about local wine independents is their team of passionate, enthusiastic, and knowledgeable staff. I higly recomend to strike up a relationship with one of them, some who really knows what theyré talking about, and so the road to better drinking begins.

- James Richards (Manager & Wine Buff): Started in the wine trade in 1995 for Wine Bin Ends, a small independent wine merchants based in Cambridge. It was during the year spent working for them, that James’s love of wine emerged. Several years elapsed before the birth of Vin Neuf in 2002 and by 2005 James obtained a WSET diploma from Coventry University.

- Olivia Richards (Retail Manager): Olivia manages retail sales and all local deliveries. Currently studying the family WSET books, her wine knowledge continues to blossom! Olivia has an excellent palate and is invaluable at trade tasting events.

- Paul Richards (Wine Taster): The senior Richards family representative, now semi-retired, is nevertheless a key member of Vin Neuf wine merchants. When not travelling in these exotic climes, he is found on the stacker truck late at night unloading lorries at our Warehouse.

- Lynne Fairbairn (Retail Assistant): Lynn, one of the fledgling members of the Vin Neuf team, jumped at the chance of supporting the Richards family with wholesale deliveries and retail sales. Her background is in acting and Customer Service training – and she is extremely proud to be working with undoubtedly the finest vintners in Warwickshire. Lynn hails from the North East so you may hear her dulcet tones when she gives you a call or when you pop into the shop; you will always receive a warm welcome.


VIN NEUF ONLINE SHOP SITE

For those who are unable to visit the shop but like the look of their wines, you can use the new look webshop launched in December 2013.

The online shop site is being designed to compliment the Vin Neuf retail shop in the heart of Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. Here you will find easy navigation to a select choice from the world of fine wines, champagnes, ports, sherries and organic juices.

Finding a decent wine shop is your key to getting more out of wine, tha´s why you should consider also adding your name to their mailing list and receive updates on our latest wine offers. They also send wine news, information on wine tasting events and much more…

When ordering on-line is highly recomended enter your postcode to ensure the correct delivery address. They endeavour to deliver the majority of orders themselves within their delivery area: (B/CV/WR) postcodes via the Vin Neuf Van (VNV) and the charge is only £6.95 (Courier: £12.00 depending on postcode and weight). However, if the van is already on a scheduled delivery within your area, delivery will be free, so when they call you back to take payment they will arrange the best delivery date to suit.


Delivery will be within 2 working days. Please note when they send wine with their courier the price includes special transit packaging to ensure the wines arrive safely. Please also note that deliveries to Northern Ireland, The Isle of Man, The Isle of Wight, The Scilly Isles and some areas of Scotland may take longer and are subject to a surcharge.

It is regrettable that the London Congestion Charge where applicable will also be passed on to the buyer. Despatch will generally be within 48 hours, or a maximum 5 working days from receipt of order. The seller shall not be liable to the Buyer for any loss of any nature arising as a result of any delay in making delivery.

All goods should be examined upon receipt, and any claim for loss or breakage notified by e-mail, fax or telephone forthwith. In case of goods delivered by couriers unless any claim is made within 24 hours, no compensation, refund or other credit will be available.


BUYING WINE ON THE INTERNET

Pros of buying wine on the Internet:
- Fantastic range
- Availability of mature wines
- Availability of classic wines no longer in the mainstream
- Door-to-door services

Tips for online success:
1. Buy from a reputable online supplier: Shop with an established retailer: preferably someone with a physical store as well as an online presence. Online customer feedback is worth checking out, too.
2. Call to check that your order has been received: This is a great way to ensure that not only has the supplier received your order and details, but also that what you ordered is available.
3. Confirm the shipping details: Confirmation of delivery times aside, there are often extra charges and/or taxes which are payable on delivery, so this is the ideal time to double-check exactly what you're up for.
4. Make sure that your order is traceable: Check with your online retailer about whether there is an order number and/or trace number that you can use to monitor the whereabouts of your delivery should it get lost or delayed. Often, you can follow the movements of your order online.


WINE TASTINGS AT THE VIN NEUF

They hold regular informal wine tasting evenings in our cellars in Union Street, Stratford-upon-Avon. By ‘informal’ they mean you need to have no prior knowledge of wine, but just the love of grapes, good company and a ‘joyeux de vive’. The tastings are generally held every month on a Thursday evening.

Ticket prices are £20.00 per person and includes a glass of wine upon arrival and canapés with 8 wines on tasting (ticket prices may vary depending on the wines selected)

Vin Neuf offer canapés as an addition to Vin Neuf private wine tastings, corporate hospitality, corporate events and Hen parties. They offer a selection of freshly prepared vegetarian, fish and meat canapés to complement their wines and their service can be provided either in their own cellars, or at a preferred venue of your choice.

Vin Neuf Canapés provides an ‘add on’ facility to enhance your event, taking away any hassle that can come with entertaining and ensuring a sensational event with delicious wines and canapés provided together.


BODEGAS URBINA RIOJA TASTING WITH WINEMAKER

Bodegas Urbina Rioja Tasting hosted by the winemaker, taste 8 wines with homemade canapés bread & cheese. £20 p/p (7th October 2015).
- Cheeses: Camembert, Manchego, Picos Blue
- Wine on arrival: Tobelos barrel fermented Blanco Rioja 2013
- Canapés: Tapenade and Bruschettà. Mozzarella and chorizo croustade, Sweet chilli king prawns and rocket blinis Mini Pissadeliere

Ticket prices are £20.00 per person and includes a glass of wine upon arrival and canapés with 8 wines on tasting (Ticket prices may vary depending on the wines selected/venue).

Please Note: if you wish to receive an invitation via email or via the post please, send on your details via email or phone the shop on 01789 261 747


Bodegas Urbina Crianza, Rioja 2008 - £13.69

- Tasting note: Ruby colour with garnet hues. On the nose, good intensity with elegant, mature and cherries, vanilla, coconout and spice on the nose. On the palate, well-balanced and complexed, creamy smooth, velvety texture of red berries, nuts and spice flavours with firm tannins and background, good structure, long lasting, with persistent aftertaste. Pleasant and easy-drinking.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13,5%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from over 25+ year old vines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: This Crianza is fermented at 28º C and macerated for 26 days in stainless steel tanks. The wine is aged in oak for 12 months after which it is bottled and remains at the cellar for a further 6 months before release. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


Salva Rioja Crianza, Rioja 2011 - £10,95

- Tasting note: Cherry red colour with garnet rim, with abundant tears. Intense, complex nose of red and black fruits, blackberry, raspberry and ripe cherry, with balsamic and spicy traces. Roasted cocoa, much minerality and hints of rain forest. Powerful and elegant on the palate, great structure, balanced and smooth with ripe black cherries flavoured with cocoa and spices. Refreshing acidity and minerality, with a long, lingering aftertaste.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 100% Tempranillo

- Alcohol volume: 14%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from over 25+ year old vines. The soil type is ferrous clay, calcareous clay and stony alluvial.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28 deg C and macerated for 28 days in stainless steel, this wine remains in 80% American and 20% French oak for 12 months and stabilizes naturally in stainless steel tanks for a year.


Bodegas Urbina Reserva Especial, Rioja 2001 - £20,00

- Reviews: Robert Parker, 90 points. "The 2001 Reserva Especial was produced from organically grown fruit from 50+ year old-vines. It was aged for 24 months in French and American oak. It is dark ruby-colored with a funky/earthy nose that also reveals crushed rock, spice box, and blanch cherry. Made in a traditional style, it is graceful on the palate wich silky red fruit, lively acidity, excellent balance, and a pure finish. It can be enjoyed now and over the next 6-8 years".

- Tasting note: Dark rubyand very bright in colour. On the nose, medium intensity, fine black fruits, blanc cherries, ripe plum, leather and tobacco notes which integrate perfectly with the oak. On the palate, is round, silky smooth with refreshing acidity, elegant and very long.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 100% Tempranillo

- Alcohol volume: 14%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines used for the production Gran Reserva wines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28 º C and macerated for 28 days in stainless steel tanks. Aged 2 years in French and American oak and at least 2 years in bottle prior to release. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


Salva Rioja Reserva, Rioja 2010 - £18,95

- Tasting note: Black cherry colour, with upper middle layer. Clean and bright with intense, complex aromas of ripe black fruit, cedar, balsamic notes, mint, fresh toasted oak, coffee, cocoa and earthy notes. Very rich and full on the palate with noticeable acidity and wood notes perfectly assembled with red and black berries, currants, blackberries, menthol, nutmeg, chocolate, smoke and minerality finishing with velvety, round, soft tannins.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 100% Tempranillo

- Alcohol volume: 14%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from over 25+ year old vines. The soil type is ferrous clay, calcareous clay and stony alluvial.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28ºC and macerated for 28 days in stainless steel, this Reserva remains in 80% American and 20% French oak for 36 months and stabilizes naturally in stainless steel tanks for a year.


Bodegas Urbina Selection, Rioja 1999 £16,95

- Tasting note: Intense, dark ruby red colour. Very concentrated nose of berries, damsons, and figs. On the palate, full-bodied, rich fruit cake and savoury vanilla flavours, well-structured, mellow, firm tannins with the fine elegance of the Urbina marque.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: 100% Tempranillo

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines used for the production of Reserva / Gran Reserva wines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28º C and macerated for 28 days. Aged for at least 15 months in oak casks. The wine will develop into a fine Reserva within 4 years if conserved at a temperature between 15º and 18º.


Bodegas Urbina Gran Reserva, Rioja 1996 - £22.50

- Tasting note: Colour reddish garnet. On the nose, powerful, complex and elegant. Rich vegetable and tobacco aromas, a perfect harmony of oak and glorious fruit. On the palate, intense rich fruit, prunes, dates and sweet raisin flavours, silky and creamy. A wine with great finesse and velvet smoothness, wondrous length and full finish.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28ºC and macerated for 28 days. Aged for a least 36 months in oak casks and a further 48 months in bottle before relaease. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


Bodegas Urbina Gran Reserva Especial, Rioja 1994 - £22.50

- Tasting note: Colour reddish garnet. On the nose, powerful, complex and elegant. Rich vegetable and tobacco aromas, a perfect harmony of oak and glorious fruit. On the palate, intense rich fruit, prunes, dates and sweet raisin flavours, silky and creamy. A wine with great finesse and velvet smoothness, wondrous length and full finish.

- Origin: D.O.C Rioja Alta, Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron. (España)

- Varieties: Hand-picked 95% Tempranillo, 5% Garnacha, Mazuelo, Graciano.

- Alcohol volume: 13%

- Viticulture: A selection of only the very best Tempranillo grapes from average age 40+ year old vines.

- Enology: The wine is produced by the team of winemakers heades by Pedro Benito Urbina.

- Elaboration: Fermented at 28ºC and macerated for 28 days. Aged for a least 36 months in oak casks and a further 48 months in bottle before relaease. Only indigenous yeasts are used in the wine-making process which give the Urbina wines their unique personality.


PEDRO BENITO SÁEZ URBINA (RIOJA WINEMAKER)

- Title: Vinegrower - Oenologist - Sommelier - Winemaker
- Company Name: Bodegas Urbina - Since 2005 to present (10 years).
- Location: Calle Campillo 34 - 35 Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón (La Rioja - Spain).

Professional Experience:
- 2014 Appointed new member of the "Cofradía del Vino de Rioja".
- 2012 Partner of the newspaper "Diario La Rioja". Spreading the culture of wine, with a full page every week. Seventh oldest newspaper in Spain that publishes and distributes since 1889, with a current circulation of about 16,000 copies a day.
- 2010 Appointed member of the "Association of sommeliers from Rioja".
- 2009 Nominated Golden Nose of La Rioja (The most prestigious sommelier competition in Spain): Over 400 working professionals attend each year to become the new Golden Nose.
- 2006 Appointed member of the Committees Tasting the Regulatory Council of the Denomination of Origin Rioja.
- 2005-2014 Bodegas Urbina (La Rioja - Spain): Head of Sales; Development and production of wine; Maintenance of the vineyard.
- 2003-2004 Frey Vineyards (California - USA): Organization and presentation of wine tastings; Representative at trade shows; Winemaking and wine production; Maintenance Vineyard.

Education:
- 2004-2005 Technician in wine making: I.E.S Duques de Najera, Logroño (La Rioja - Spain)
- 1999-2003 BS Business Administration / Marketing - Business Studies (San Jose State University, San Jose, USA)
- 1998-1999 Ukiah High School, USA


RIOJA WINE REGION

Rioja, the leading wine region of spain, producing predominantly red wines in the north of the country. Named after the rio (river) Oja, a tributary of the river Ebro, most of the Rioja wine region lies in the autonomous region of La Rioja in north east Spain, although parts of the zone extend into the neighbouring basque country to the north west and navarra to the north east.

Centred on the regional capital Logroño, Rioja divides into three zones along the axis of the river Ebro. Rioja Alta occupies the part of the Ebro valley west of Logroño and includes the wine-making town of Haro Rioja Alavesa is the name given to the section of the zone north of the river Ebro which falls in the Basque province of Alava Rioja Baja extends from the suburbs of Logroño south and east to include the towns of Calahorra and Alfaro.


CLIMATE AND GEOGRAPHY

Rioja enjoys an enviable position among Spanish wine regions. Sheltered by the Sierra de Cantabria to the north and west, it is well protected from the rain-bearing Atlantic winds that drench the Basque coast immediately to the north. Yet Rioja’s wine producers rarely experience the climatic extremes that burden growers in so much of central and southern Spain. It is difficult to make climatic generalizations, however, about a region that stretches about 120 km/75 miles from north west to south east. Indeed, Spanish critics argue that within this sigle DO there are several entirely different wine-producing regions.

The vineyards range in altitude 300 m/984 ft above sea level at Alfaro in the east to nearly 800 m on the slopes of the Sierra de Cantabria to the north west. Average annual rainfall increases correspondingly from less than 300 mm/12 in in parts of Rioja Baja to over 500 mm in the upper zones of Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa.

Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa share a similar climate and are distinct from from ecah other for mainly administrative reasons, although there are soil differences between the two. Many of the best grapes are grown here on the cooler slopes to the north west around the towns and villages of Haro, Labastida, San Vicente, Laguardia, Elciego, Fuenmayor, Cenicero, and Briones. These zones share similar clay soils based on limestone. Downstream to the east, the climate becomes gradually warmer with rainfall decreasing to less than 400 mm at Logroño. Where the valley broadens, there is a higher incidence of fertile, alluvial soils composed chieflv of silt. Around Calahorra and Alfaro in Rioja Baja the climate is more mediterranean. In summer, drought is often a problem here, and temperatures frequently reach 30 to 35 °C/ 95 °F.


VITICULTURE AND VINE VARIETIES

Seven grape varieties (four red. three white) qualify for Rioja's Denominación de Origen and their distribution varies in different: parts of the region. The most widely planted variety is the probably indigenous, black Tempranillo, which ripens well on the clay and limestone slopes of Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa, where it forms the basis for the region’s best wines and in the mid 2000s was planted on nearly 40,000 of the regions 62,000 ha/153,000 acres of vineyard.

Most Riojas are blends of more than one variety, however, and wines made from the garnacha vine, which after phylloxera superseded native varieties in the Rioja Baja, are often used to add body to Tempranillo, which can taste thin on its own in cooler vintages. On its own. Garnacha produces hefty alcoholic red wines. Rioja, like neighbouring Navarra, produces rosé entirely from Garnacha grapes. Two further red varieties Mazuelo (Cariñena or carignan) and Graciano, are of relatively minor importance. Although Mazuelo is not especially prized for quality, the indigenous Graciano great potential, contributing to the 310 and structure of the wine. Owing to its susceptibility to disease and its low productivity, Graciano fell from favour with Rioja´s  vine-growers before a strong revival in the 1990s when the area devoted to this variety grew back to 200 ha/500 acres and varietal versions are no longer oddities.

The Cabernet Sauvignon vines which arrived with the French in the 19th century are
allowed by special dispensation in vineyards belonging to the Marques de Riscal. Several other companies have experimental plantings of this Bordeaux grape, and of white imports such as Chardonnay.


Historically, until Phylloxera arrived, Rioia's chief white grape variety was Malvasia. On its own, it produced rich, alcoholic, dry white wines which responded well to ageing in oak. However, Viura (known elsewhere in Spain as Macabeo) took over as the most planted light-berried variety in the region and from the early 1970s, fresher-tasting, cool-fermented, early-bottled white wines were in Fashion all over Spain. By the 1990s, most white Riojas were made exclusively from Viura, and Malvasia vines were extremely difficult to find, although some of the traditional oak-aged whites and new barrel-fermented wines are blends of Malvasia and Viura.

Vineyards in Rioja tend to be small, especially in Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa, where vines are often interspersed with other crops. Vines used to be free-standing Bush Vines trained into low goblet shapes, but of the thousands of hectares of new vineyard which have been planted since the 1970s, most are trained on Wires. This resulted in a marked and alarming increase in yields in the region in the 1990s, even before irrigation was legalized in the late 1990s. Official DO limits are 63 hl/ha (3.5 tons/acre) for white wines and 45 hl/ha for red wines. In 1998, there were about 50,000 ha of authorized vineyards, producing an average of about 2 million hl/53 million gal of wine, of which about 80 per cent was red.


WINE-MAKING

Grapes are usually delivered to large, central wineries belonging either to one of the cooperatives or to a merchant’s bodega. Most wineries in Rioja are reasonably well equipped with a modern stainless steel plant and facilities for temperature control.

Rioja wine-making is characterized not by fermentation techniques but by barrel maturation, however, and the shape and size of the 225-l barrica bordelesa introduced by the french in the mid 19th century is laid down by law. The regulations also specify the minimum ageing period for each officially recognized category of wine. In Rioja, red wines labelled crianza and reserva must spend at least a year in oak, while a gran reserva must spend at least two years. In common with other Spanish wine regions, American oak has been the favoured wood type for wine maturation. New American oak barrels give the soft, vanilla flavour that has become accepted as typical of Rioja, but a similar effect can also be achieved by slow, oxidative maturation in older barrels. French oak is used, increasingly, however.


Over 40 per cent of all Rioja falls into one of the three oak-aged categories above (the rest is either white, rosé, or sold as young, unoaked joven red, much of it within Spain), and the larger bodegas therefore need tens of thousands of casks. In the late 1990s, the largest producer of Rioja, Bodegas Campo Viejo, maintained a stock of over 45,000 barricas. Most bodegas renew their barricas on a regular basis. New oak use is on the increase and the number of traditional producers who pride themselves on the age of their casks is dwindling. Some new producers are also spurning the tradional categories and bottling their oak-aged wine with a basic, generic Rioja back label.

After the widespread adoption of cool fermentation techniques in the 1970s, the amount of oak-aged white Rioja progressively diminished. López de Heredia, Marqués de Murrieta, and only a few other bodegas upheld the traditional style by ageing their white wines in oak barricas. For whites labelled Crianza, Reserva, or Gran Reserva, the minimum wood-ageing period is just six months with a further year, two years, or four years respectively before the wines may be released for sale. By the mid 1990s, a large number of producers had switched to fashionable barrel fermentation, however, in effect reviving the region’s traditional white wine vinification method.

Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire (England) - William Shakespeare´s Birthplace

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STRATFORD-UPON-AVON IN WARWICKSHIRE (ENGLAND)

The town is a popular tourist destination owing to its status as birthplace of the playwright and poet William Shakespeare, often regarded as the world's greatest playwright of all time, receiving about 4.9 million visitors a year from all over the world. The Royal Shakespeare Company resides in Stratford's Royal Shakespeare Theatre, one of Britain's most important cultural venues.

Stratford-upon-Avon, known locally as Stratford, is a market town and civil parish in south Warwickshire, England. It lies on the River Avon, 22 miles (35 km) south east of Birmingham and 8 miles (13 km) south west of Warwick. It is the largest and most populous town of the non-metropolitan district Stratford-on-Avon, which uses the term "on" rather than "upon" to distinguish it from the town itself. Four electoral wards make up the urban town of Stratford; Alveston, Avenue and New Town, Mount Pleasant and Guild and Hathaway. The estimated total population for those wards in 2007 was 25,505.


- History: Stratford has Anglo-Saxon origins, and developed as a market town during the medieval period. The original charters of the town were granted in 1196, making Stratford over 800 years old. The name is a combination of the Old English strǣt, meaning "street", and ford, indicating a site at which a road forded a river. The "street" was a smaller Roman road connecting the larger roads Fosse Way and Icknield Street.

In 1769 the actor David Garrick staged a major Shakespeare Jubilee over three days which saw the construction of a large rotunda and the influx of many visitors. This contributed to the growing phenomenon of Bardolatry which made Stratford a tourist destination.


- Geography: Stratford is close to the Cotswolds, with Chipping Campden 10 miles (16 km) to the south. The Cotswolds was a major sheep producing area, up until the latter part of the 19th century, with Stratford as one of its main centres for the processing, marketing, and distribution of sheep and wool. Consequently Stratford also became a centre for tanning during the 15th–17th centuries. Both the river and the Roman road served as trade routes for the town.

Suburbs and areas of Stratford-on-Avon include Shottery, Bishopton, Bridgetown, Tiddington, and Old Town.


- Tourism: The regular large influx of tourists is the major source of the town's prosperity. Stratford is a major English tourist town due to it being the birthplace of William Shakespeare, who is often recognised worldwide as the greatest playwright of all time. In 2010 the District Council spent £298,000 on tourism promotion and supports an official open-top tour bus service. In 2010 Stratford-on-Avon District Council launched a re-branded official tourism website for the Stratford area called Discover Stratford after opening a new tourist information centre on Henley Street in May 2010, which has since moved back to the original location on Bridgefoot.


- Economy: Apart from tourism, which is a major employer, especially in the hotel, hospitality industry and catering sectors, other industries in the town include boat building and maintenance, bicycles, mechanical and electrical engineering, food manufacture, Information Technology, call centre and service sector activities, a large motor sales sector, industrial plant hire, building suppliers, market gardening, farming, storage and transport logistics, finance and insurance, and a large retail sector.

Major employers in the town include the NFU Mutual Insurance Company (and Avon Insurance), AMEC, Sitel, Tesco, Morrisons, Marks & Spencer, Debenhams, B & Q and Pashley Cycles. There are, nominally, three theatres run by the prestigious Royal Shakespeare Company, which attract large audiences and income for the town.


MAIN SIGHTS AND ATTRACTIONS

- Theatre: The first real theatre in Stratford was a temporary wooden affair built in 1769 by the actor David Garrick for his Shakespeare Jubilee celebrations of that year to mark Shakespeare's birthday. The theatre, built not far from the site of the present Royal Shakespeare Theatre, was almost washed away in two days of torrential rain that resulted in terrible flooding.

A small theatre known as the Royal Shakespeare Rooms was built in the gardens of Shakespeare's New Place home in the early 19th century but became derelict by the 1860s.


To celebrate the 300th anniversary of Shakespeare's birth in 1864 the brewer, Charles Edward Flower, instigated the building of a temporary wooden theatre, known as the Tercentenary Theatre, which was built in a part of the brewer's large gardens on what is today the site of the new, and temporary, Courtyard Theatre. After three months the Tercentenary Theatre was dismantled, with the timber used for house-building purposes.

In the early 1870s, Charles Flower gave several acres of riverside land to the local council on the understanding that a permanent theatre be built in honour of Shakespeare's memory, and by 1879 the first Shakespeare Memorial Theatre had been completed. It proved to be a huge success, and by the early 20th century was effectively being run by the actor/manager Frank Benson, later Sir Frank Benson.


The theatre burned down in 1926, with the then artistic director, William Bridges-Adams, moving all productions to the local cinema.

An architectural competition was arranged to elicit designs for a new theatre, with the winner, English architect Elisabeth Scott, creating what we see on the riverside today. The new theatre, adjoining what was left of the old theatre, was opened by the then Prince of Wales, later Edward VIII, in 1932.

The new theatre had many illustrious artistic directors, including the actor Anthony Quayle.

Sir Peter Hall was appointed artistic director (designate) in 1959, and formed the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) in 1961.


Swan Theatre was created in the 1980s out of the shell of the remains of the original Memorial Theatre, quickly becoming one of the finest acting spaces in the UK.

In 1986, Stratford-upon-Avon was the venue for the disastrous provincial try-out of the ill-fated musical Carrie, based on the Stephen King novel.

The Waterside Theatre (which is not part of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre complex) re-opened in December 2004, then closed again in September 2008. During this span, the theatre housed the Shakespearience visitor attraction. This has now been turned into the Clore Learning Centre, the Royal Shakespeare Company's education and events venue.


The town is located on the River Avon (afon or avon being a Celtic synonym of "river"), on a bank of which stands the Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST) designed by the English architect Elisabeth Scott and completed in 1932, which is the home of the Royal Shakespeare Company. Until recently the RSC also ran two smaller theatres, the Swan Theatre, which is modelled on an Elizabethan theatre (closed in August 2007 as part of plans for refurbishment) and The Other Place theatre, a Black box theatre which was extended to become the temporary RSC Courtyard Theatre, which opened in July 2006. This theatre was the home of the RSC while the RST was being refurbished; its interior is similar to the interior of the refurbished RST. The RST and Swan refurbishment has been completed and the RST and Swan theatres re-opened in November 2010. It is anticipated that the Courtyard Theatre extension may be dismantled, although many in the town would retain the Courtyard so that it can used by local theatre companies.


Other tourist attractions within the town include five houses relating to Shakespeare's life, which are owned and cared for by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust. These include Hall's Croft (the one-time home of Shakespeare's daughter, Susanna, and her husband Dr. John Hall) and Nash's House, which stands alongside the site of another property, New Place, owned by Shakespeare himself, wherein he died. Near to the town are Anne Hathaway's Cottage at Shottery, the home of Shakespeare's wife's family prior to her marriage, and Mary Arden's House (Palmer's Farm), the family home of his mother. Elsewhere in the district are farms and buildings at Snitterfield, that belonged to the family of Shakespeare's father.


At the top end of Waterside is Holy Trinity Church, where Shakespeare was baptised and is buried.

Non-Shakespearean attractions include the Stratford Butterfly Farm, which is on the eastern side of the river and the Bancroft Gardens and Stratford Armouries located three miles (4.8 km) from the centre of Stratford on Gospel Oak Lane.

Each year on 12 October (unless this is a Sunday, in which case 11 October) Stratford hosts one of the largest mop fairs in the country. Then, on the second Saturday following, the smaller Runaway fair is held.


- Henley Street: Henley Street, one of the town's oldest streets, underwent substantial architectural change between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. John Shakespeare's large half-timbered dwelling, purchased by him in 1556, was in 1564 the birthplace of his son William. According to a descriptive placard provided for tourists there,

"The property remained in the ownership of Shakespeare's direct descendants until 1670, when his granddaughter, Elizabeth Barnard, died. As she had no children, Elizabeth left the estate to her relative Thomas Hart, Shakespeare's great-nephew. The main house became a tenanted inn called the Maidenhead (later the Swan and Maidenhead) following the death of John Shakespeare in 1601. Members of the Hart family continued living in the small adjoining cottage throughout the century."

At the end of the 19th century, Edward Gibbs "renovated" the building to more closely represent the original Tudor farmhouse. Adjacent to Shakespeare's Birthplace stands the Shakespeare Centre, completed in 1964 and not far from the Carnegie Library, opened in 1905.


The large half-timbered building which now comprises numbers 19, 20 and 21 was formerly the White Lion Inn. It is first mentioned in 1603 and was adjoined on the east by a smaller inn called the "Swan". In 1745 the latter was purchased by John Payton, who also acquired the "Lion" five years later and rebuilt the whole premises on a greatly enlarged scale. (Cal. of Trust Title Deeds, no. 147.) The work was completed by James Collins of Birmingham, builder, in 1753. (Contract, Trust Title Deeds, no. 167.) Payton "brought the house into great vogue" though Byng in 1792 complained that "at the noted White Lion, I met with nothing but incivility" (cited from Torrington Diaries (ed. Andrews), iii, 152). Payton was succeeded as innkeeper by his son John, and its reputation as one of the best inns on the Holyhead road must have contributed not a little to the prosperity of the town. Garrick stayed at the "White Lion" during the Jubilee of 1769 (Saunders MSS. 82, fol. 20) and George IV, as Prince Regent, visited it when he came to Stratford in 1806. Its great days came to an end after John Payton the younger sold it to Thomas Arkell in 1823. The building is now home to the Enchanted Manor Museum at the Creaky Cauldron and Magic Alley; the Box Brownie Café; Doug Brown's Really Good Gift Company; and the Not Just Shakespeare Tourist Information Centre.

Henley Street is now a major tourist and shopping precinct with many al fresco cafés and street entertainers.


- Sheep Street: Sheep Street runs from Ely Street eastwards to the Waterside. It was a residential quarter in the 16th century, some of the buildings were rebuilt following the fire of 1595, although many, such as Number 40, date from 1480. Formerly a two story building that was extended in the early twentieth century has a lower story of substantial close-set studding: the upper is of more widely spaced thin vertical timbers.

As the name suggests Sheep Street, which leads down from the Town Hall to Waterside and the RST, was from early times and until the late 19th century, the area where sheep, brought from the neighbouring Cotswold Hills, were slaughtered and butchered. Today it is the restaurant centre of the town.



The Shrieves House is one of the oldest still lived in houses in the town and Shakespeare is said to have based his character of Sir John Falstaff on one of the residents, his godson's uncle. Oliver Cromwell is thought to have stayed here in 1651. He wrote a letter from the town to Lord Wharton on 27 August 1651, before the Battle of Worcester.

Behind The Shrieves House is a museum called "Tudor World" with recreations of 16th century life in theatrical settings.

Just off Sheep Street is Shrieves walk, a very quaint walkway with several small independent stores, including a Vintage Clothing shop.


- Waterside & Southern Lane: This area of Stratford, which runs from the foot of Bridge Street to Holy Trinity Church (and leads directly off Sheep Street and Chapel Lane) runs alongside the River Avon and offers access to the Waterside Theatre and all areas of the RST.

The Bancroft Gardens and river area is a very popular place for people watching, enjoying picnics and river activities. In the summer the River Avon is busy with rowing boats, motor boats and river cruises. The Birmingham to Stratford Canal is busy with colourful narrowboats passing through or mooring up in the canal basin Stratford-upon-Avon Canal. There are often jugglers, fire-eaters and magicians entertaining the public on the lawns. On the edge of the gardens is a water fountain, known as the Swan Fountain. It was unveiled in 1996 by the Queen Elizabeth II to recognise that Stratford has been a market town since 1196. It is from here the Stratford Town Walk meet every day (even Christmas Day), to offer a guided walking tour of the town. The tour passes the Shakespeare houses, Royal Shakespeare Theatres, 15th century timber-framed buildings, William Shakespeare's school and visits Holy Trinity Church.


- Shopping centres: Apart from the town centre, Maybird Shopping Park, usually referred to locally as "The Maybird Centre" or simply "The Maybird", is a large shopping centre situated on Birmingham Road, approximately a five-minute drive from the town centre, which features numerous shops and is a very well used part of the town. Shops featured at the Maybird include Asda Living, B&Q, Argos, Pizza Hut, WHSmith, Subway, Jollyes, Boots, M&S, Sports Direct, New Look, Outfit, Next and Costa Coffee, the latter of which is the second Costa Coffee shop in Stratford, with another located on Henley Street. A large Tesco supermarket is located next to the Maybird, behind B&Q. On the same road is a smaller Aldi store.


Directly opposite the Maybird, on the other side of Birmingham Road, is Maybrook Industrial Estate, a smaller shopping centre which includes stores such as Staples, Carphone Warehouse, Maplin Electronics and Carpetright.

The Rosebird Centre is a much smaller shopping centre located on Shipston Road and contains a large Waitrose supermarket, Pets Corner pet shop and Rosebird Centre Pharmacy. The pharmacy also serves as a medical centre, acting as a branch of the main Rother House Medical Centre on Alcester Road. An Avonvale Veterinary Centre is soon to open in Rosebird Centre.


WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

William Shakespeare, was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.He is often called England's national poet, and the "Bard of Avon". His extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.

Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, and religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.


Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights.

Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare, published the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as "not of an age, but for all time". In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular, and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.


- Early life: William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George's Day. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar's mistake, has proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April 1616. He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son.

Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King's New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar, the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree, and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors.



At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage. The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times, and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583. Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596.


After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the 'complaints bill' of a law case before the Queen's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589. Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost years". Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him. Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London. John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster. Some 20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William Shakeshafte" in his will. Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.


- London and theatrical career: It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592. By then, he was sufficiently well known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit:

... there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.

Scholars differ on the exact meaning of these words, but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and Greene himself (the "university wits"). The italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun "Shake-scene", identifies Shakespeare as Greene's target. Here Johannes Factotum—"Jack of all trades"— means a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common "universal genius".


Greene's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare's career in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene's remarks. From 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed by only the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new king, James I, and changed its name to the King's Men.

In 1599, a partnership of company members built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they called the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Records of Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that the company made him a wealthy man. In 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, he invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford.


Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions from 1594. By 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were first staged after Volpone, although we cannot know for certain which roles he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that "good Will" played "kingly" roles. In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father. Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It and the Chorus in Henry V, though scholars doubt the sources of the information.


Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during his career. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames. He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there. By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral with many fine houses. There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of ladies' wigs and other headgear.


- Later years and death: Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford 'some years before his death'. He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers' petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King's Men 'placed men players' there, 'which were Heminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.'.[53] However it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609.[54][55] The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610),[56] which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time.[57] Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614.[51] In 1612, he was called as a witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's daughter, Mary.[58] In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory;[59] and from November 1614 he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.[60] After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613.[61] His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher,[62] who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King's Men.


Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52. He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted," not an impossible scenario, since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon/From the world's stage to the grave's tiring room."

He was survived by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John Hall, in 1607, and Judith had married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, two months before Shakespeare's death. Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616; the following day his new son-in-law, Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler, who had died during childbirth. Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance, which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family.


Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna under stipulations that she pass it down intact to "the first son of her body". The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying. The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeare's direct line. Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically. He did make a point, however, of leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much speculation. Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death. The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008.


Sometime before 1623, a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its plaque compares him to Nestor, Socrates, and Virgil. In 1623, in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio, the Droeshout engraving was published.

Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world, including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.

- Plays: Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point, and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same, mostly early and late in his career. Some attributions, such as Titus Andronicus and the early history plays, remain controversial, while The Two Noble Kinsmen and the lost Cardenio have well-attested contemporary documentation. Textual evidence also supports the view that several of the plays were revised by other writers after their original composition.


The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date, however, and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare's earliest period. His first histories, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty. The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by the plays of Seneca. The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models, but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found, though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story. Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona, in which two friends appear to approve of rape, the Shrew's story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics and directors.


Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies. A Midsummer Night's Dream is a witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes. Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic Merchant of Venice, contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock, which reflects Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences. The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing, the charming rural setting of As You Like It, and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies. After the lyrical Richard II, written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s, Henry IV, parts 1 and 2, and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work. This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and death; and Julius Caesar—based on Sir Thomas North's 1579 translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama. According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro, in Julius Caesar "the various strands of politics, character, inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on the act of writing, began to infuse each other".


In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem plays" Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida, and All's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies. Many critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies, Hamlet, has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous soliloquy which begins "To be or not to be; that is the question". Unlike the introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty errors of judgement. The plots of Shakespeare's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves. In Othello, the villain Iago stokes Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him. In King Lear, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers, initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear's youngest daughter Cordelia. According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play-offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty". In Macbeth, the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies, uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth, to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne, until their own guilt destroys them in turn. In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot.


In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale and The Tempest, as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors. Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part, but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day. Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays, Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen, probably with John Fletcher.

- Performances: It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays. The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes. After the plagues of 1592–3, Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch, north of the Thames. Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV, Leonard Digges recording, "Let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room". When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre, the first playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark. The Globe opened in autumn 1599, with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged. Most of Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe, including Hamlet, Othello and King Lear.


After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men in 1603, they entered a special relationship with the new King James. Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605, including two performances of The Merchant of Venice. After 1608, they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer. The indoor setting, combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices. In Cymbeline, for example, Jupiter descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their knees."

The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage, William Kempe, Henry Condell and John Heminges. Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Richard III, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing, among other characters. He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin, who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear. In 1613, Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII "was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony". On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision.


- Textual sources: In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men, published the First Folio, a collected edition of Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the first time. Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves. No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and surreptitious copies". Alfred Pollard termed some of them "bad quartos" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory. Where several versions of a play survive, each differs from the other. The differences may stem from copying or printing errors, from notes by actors or audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers. In some cases, for example Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida and Othello, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions. In the case of King Lear, however, while most modern editions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto, that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without confusion.


- Poems: In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on erotic themes, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton. In Venus and Adonis, an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus; while in The Rape of Lucrece, the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin. Influenced by Ovid's Metamorphoses, the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust. Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem, A Lover's Complaint, in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover's Complaint. Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects. The Phoenix and the Turtle, printed in Robert Chester's 1601 Love's Martyr, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover, the faithful turtle dove. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim, published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.


- Sonnets: Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership. Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends". Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare's intended sequence. He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial "I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked his heart".

The 1609 edition was dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication. Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.


- Style: Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama. The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetorical written for actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in Titus Andronicus, in the view of some critics, often hold up the action, for example; and the verse in The Two Gentlemen of Verona has been described as stilted.

Soon, however, Shakespeare began to adapt the traditional styles to his own purposes. The opening soliloquy of Richard III has its roots in the self-declaration of Vice in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's mature plays. No single play marks a change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the two throughout his career, with Romeo and Juliet perhaps the best example of the mixing of the styles. By the time of Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.


Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse, composed in iambic pentameter. In practice, this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and finish at the end of lines, with the risk of monotony. Once Shakespeare mastered traditional blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil in Hamlet's mind:

"Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting
That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay
Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashly—
And prais'd be rashness for it—let us know
Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well ..."

— Hamlet, Act 5, Scene 2, 4–8


After Hamlet, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further, particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The literary critic A. C. Bradley described this style as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical". In the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to achieve these effects. These included run-on lines, irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure and length. In Macbeth, for example, the language darts from one unrelated metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself?" (1.7.35–38); "... pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air ..." (1.7.21–25). The listener is challenged to complete the sense. The late romances, with their shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic style in which long and short sentences are set against one another, clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.


Shakespeare combined poetic genius with a practical sense of the theatre. Like all playwrights of the time, he dramatised stories from sources such as Plutarch and Holinshed. He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and to show as many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama. As Shakespeare's mastery grew, he gave his characters clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech. He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however. In Shakespeare's late romances, he deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the illusion of theatre.


- Influence: Shakespeare's work has made a lasting impression on later theatre and literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre. Until Romeo and Juliet, for example, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events; but Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds. His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic poets attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama, though with little success. Critic George Steiner described all English verse dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."

Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy, William Faulkner, and Charles Dickens. The American novelist Herman Melville's soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare; his Captain Ahab in Moby-Dick is a classic tragic hero, inspired by King Lear. Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare's works. These include two operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Otello and Falstaff, whose critical standing compares with that of the source plays. Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The Swiss Romantic artist Henry Fuseli, a friend of William Blake, even translated Macbeth into German. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.

In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling and pronunciation were less standardised than they are now, and his use of language helped shape modern English. Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his A Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type. Expressions such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello) have found their way into everyday English speech.


- Critical reputation: Shakespeare was not revered in his lifetime, but he received a large amount of praise. In 1598, the cleric and author Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English writers as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy. The authors of the Parnassus plays at St John's College, Cambridge numbered him with Chaucer, Gower and Spenser. In the First Folio, Ben Jonson called Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage", though he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted art".

Between the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson. Thomas Rymer, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare". For several decades, Rymer's view held sway; but during the 18th century, critics began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and acclaim what they termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work, notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, added to his growing reputation. By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as the national poet. In the 18th and 19th centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed him were the writers Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal and Victor Hugo.


During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was praised by the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge; and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel translated his plays in the spirit of German Romanticism. In the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often bordered on adulation. "That King Shakespeare," the essayist Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible". The Victorians produced his plays as lavish spectacles on a grand scale. The playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", claiming that the new naturalism of Ibsen's plays had made Shakespeare obsolete.

The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant-garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in Moscow mounted productions of his plays. Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare. The poet and critic T.S. Eliot argued against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly modern.[183] Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches replaced modernism and paved the way for "post-modern" studies of Shakespeare. By the 1980s, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as structuralism, feminism, New Historicism, African-American studies, and queer studies. In a comprehensive reading of Shakespeare's works and comparing Shakespeare literary accomplishments to accomplishments among leading figures in philosophy and theology as well, Harold Bloom has commented that, "Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine. He encloses us, because we see with his fundamental perceptions."


- Classification of the plays: Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed according to their folio classification as comedies, histories and tragedies. Two plays not included in the First Folio, The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles, Prince of Tyre, are now accepted as part of the canon, with scholars agreed that Shakespeare made a major contribution to their composition. No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio.

In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, Dowden's term is often used.These plays and the associated Two Noble Kinsmen are marked with an asterisk (*) below. In 1896, Frederick S. Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All's Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet. "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may therefore borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays." The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy.


SPECULATION ABOUT SHAKESPEARE

- Authorship: Around 230 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him. Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. Several "group theories" have also been proposed. Only a small minority of academics believe there is reason to question the traditional attribution, but interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship, continues into the 21st century.

- Sexuality: Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, who was pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six months later on 26 May 1583. Over the centuries, some readers have posited that Shakespeare's sonnets are autobiographical, and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than sexual love. The 26 so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons.


- Portraiture: No written contemporary description of Shakespeare's physical appearance survives, and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout engraving, which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness, and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare. That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits, as well as mis-attributions, repaintings and relabelling of portraits of other people.

- Religion: Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics, at a time when practicing Catholicism in England was against the law. Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, certainly came from a pious Catholic family. The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father, John Shakespeare, found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street. The document is now lost, however, and scholars differ as to its authenticity. In 1591 the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church "for fear of process for debt", a common Catholic excuse. In 1606, the name of William's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford. As several scholars have noted, whatever his private views, Shakespeare "conformed to the official state religion", as Park Honan put it. Also, Shakespeare's will uses a Protestant formula, and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England, where he was married, his children were baptized, and where he is buried. Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare's religious beliefs. Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare's Catholicism, Protestantism, or lack of belief in his plays, but the truth may be impossible to prove.

Weavers Wines Merchant in Nottingham, UK

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WEAVERS WINES MERCHANT IN NOTTINGHAM, UK

Is a family business stablished over more than 100 years ago. Weavers specialise in a range of wines imported from all over the world as well as a selection of whiskies and spirits. An inhouse service for corporate tastings and weddings is available upon request.

- Alan Trease: Managing Director at Weavers. Join them at their fun and informal wine tasting evenings. Designed for all levels of knowledge they run a number of themed events throughout the year.

- Philip Trease: Responsible for the Wine Club. If you enjoy trying wines that are different and offer great value for money, then why not join the Weavers Wine Club and leave the choice to them. Remember, their Wine Club is about pushing your taste buds.

- Mary Trease: Writes the Cellar News and the online newsletters. Cellar News works along side their wine blog, join it today for free and she will keep you informed of what’s new at Weavers.


- Name: Weavers of Nottingham Ltd
- Type of business: Shop/Wine Merchant
- Adress: Vintner House, 1 Castle Gate, Nottingham, NG1 7AQ
- Tel: 44 (0)115 958 0922
- Fax: 44 (0)115 950 8076

- Established in 1844: Weavers is one of Nottingham’s oldest independent businesses. Established in 1844 by Edward Cossal Weaver, Weavers started life as a Public House. In 1897, George Trease bought the business from Mr Weaver who emigrated to South Africa. Under the watchful eye of Bill Trease, George’s grandson, the business continued to trade as a Public House together with a small wholesale wine and spirits business.

In 1959, the Public House was sold and the company became wine merchants in the property remaining at 1 Castle Gate. Alan became the 4th generation of the family to join the business, and with his father, grew the wholesale business.


- Weavers, 2010 and Beyond: Today, brother and sister Philip and Mary Trease, the 5th generation of the family, are involved in the business. Weavers is a thriving company supplying wines and spirits to private, corporate and trade customers throughout the Midlands and the UK.

They supply the most comprehensive and creative range of wines, spirits and liqueurs from the popular easy drinking styles through to the traditional and more unusual, rare and sought after products.

- Personal Service: Their service is second to none. From hosting wine tasting events to running their successful Wine Club and extensive trade services they are on hand to help you any time.

They pride ourselves on their personal service. Though the advent of email is great, they also like to speak to you in person. Please feel free to pick up the phone and call them. You will not be greeted by an automated telephone service.



- The team of knowledgeable staff: Many of their staff have been with them a long time and they are encouraged to take their Wine and Spirit Exams and taste their wines regularly. This team of experienced and knowledgeable staff are happy to help and advise you on your selection.

Their warehouse team and drivers are pleased to arrange delivery of your wines direct to your door, office or function at a convenient time.

Remember they deliver as far away as Loughborough, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Burton, Mansfield, Newark and Lincolnshire twice weekly on their vans and also deliver to local areas on Saturdays.

They use national carriers for delivery anywhere in the UK.


TRADE SERVICES

- Flexible Delivery: They pride themselves in their stock control and efficient delivery. They deliver to most areas in the East Midlands twice a week and if you have been caught short they can manage to come out the same day.

- Sale or Return: Their products are supplied on a sale or return basis. This is ideal if you want to stock up for a big event or renew a wine list. They will simply collect any unsold stock and credit you for any unopened bottles you return.

- Staff Training: Their product knowededge is second to none. They understand how to sell wines and like to impart this knowledge to you and your staff. They are happy to come and do educational training sessions which are fun and informal (as they believe this is the best way to learn) either on your premises or at their tasting rooms in Nottingham.


- Wine List Design & Printing: They know how to write your wine list to suit your requirements and of course they are happy to print it for you as part of the free service they offer to trade customers. They also spend time monitoring your prices to ensure that you make the best return on your sales. They also have a huge online resource which you can access to help you in staff training .

- Own Label Wine: They have a collection of wines which are perfect to customise to your venue. Because these products taste great they are a great way to endorse your venue. As part of the service they are happy to design and print these labels for you, not only that their minium order is just 6 bottles.

- Tastings and Gourmet Nights: They are always looking at ways to promote their customer venues. After all, the better you do the better they do.

Readers to their online newsletter ‘Cellar News’ are looking for tastings and events that they run. They will happily invite them to any evening we run in conjunction with you.


WEAVERS NEW GADGET A CORKING WAY TO SAVE WINE - CORAVIN DEVICE

Wine and spirit merchant Weavers is raising a glass to the success of a new money-saving gadget. The Coravin device, which allows drinkers to open a bottle of wine without removing the cork, means the family-run firm can save half-empty bottles opened at wine-tasting sessions.

It comes after Weavers spent thousands of pounds renovating its cellars so that it could host more tasting events. Philip Trease, director of the Castle Gate business, said it used to throw away any undrunk wine. But it can be preserved for a later occasion, thanks to the gadget, which works by inserting a stainless steel needle through a cork to access the wine. Once the needle is removed, the cork naturally reseals.

Mr Trease said: "Before, if we had opened six bottles of wine, that was potentially three bottles going to waste." Asked if the Coravin would help the business save money at its tasting events, Mr Trease said: "Ultimately it will".


The gadget was launched in the United States three years ago. The Trease family were first introduced to it when they went to Restaurant Sat Bains in Nottingham. After being impressed by the simplicity of the £269 product, they are now selling it at their store.

Sales director Mary Trease added: "I thought it was a bit of a gimmick but, after speaking to chef Sat Bains and other people in the wine industry about it, I was quite excited. "We aren't going to open every single bottle on our shelves but there may be a couple of bottles we can open to showcase to people."

Coravin director Louis De Demandolx, who lives in France, said: "It's a totally new way of tasting wine. "I think it's a true innovation."

For centuries, the cork had to be removed in order to enjoy a glass of wine-that era is over. The Coravin System is a transformational new technology that allows users to pour wine whiling keeping the cork in the bottle, where it's been since it was first sealed in the winery.

Now you can enjoy your favorite and finest wines by the glass whenever you like, and feel confident that your wine will be protected until the next glass is poured. Now you can share and enjoy the same bottle, or bottles on multiple occasions, over weeks, months, or even longer and without wasting a drop.


How do we do it?:

- When the Coravin System is put in place, a thin, hollow needle is inserted through the cork to extract the wine. The bottle is then pressurized with argon, an inert gas that's in the air we breathe. Once the bottle has been pressurized, the wine flows through the needle and pours into your glass. Once your wine is poured, the needle is removed, and the cork reseals itself.

- The Coravin System will work best with natural cork closures, including closures made of agglomerated or multi-piece natural cork. It is not intended for use on synthetic closures since they are unlikely to re-seal completely. If you do use the system with a synthetic closure, store the bottle upright afterwards. Synthetic closures will permit some oxidation, and may result in leakage when stored or poured. The Coravin 1000 System cannot be used with metal, glass or screw top closures.


How It Works:

- Access: A thin, hollow needle is inserted through the cork to access the wine..

- Pressurize and Pour: The bottle is pressurized with argon, an inert gas that has no effect on the taste profile of wine. The wine then flows through the needle and pours into the glass.

- Remove and Reseal: The needle is removed from the cork and the cork reseals, protecting the wine from oxidation, enabling you to enjoy your wine glass by glass, weeks or months later.


Benefits for the wine lover:

The Coravin System allows you to sip, share, and enjoy fine wines without wasting a drop. Go ahead be adventurous.

- Expand your palate: Explore, compare and contrast regions, varietals, producer styles and vintages.

- Create a memorable experience for your guests by offering a variety of food and wine pairings.

- Get more creative with your food and wine pairings and serve both red and white wines with different courses during dinner.


Frequently Asked Questions:

- How does the Coravin System differ from wine preservation systems?: Coravin is a wine system. Unlike preservation systems, which require the cork to be pulled and allow oxygen to enter the bottle, Coravin leaves the cork in place to continue protecting the wine, allowing you to pour from same bottle weeks or months later.

- What testing has been done to prove that the Coravin System actually works?: The Coravin team has been conducted blind taste tests of bottles previously accessed with the Coravin System against control bottles from the same case with master sommeliers, masters of wine, and winemakers themselves. They have not been able to distinguish between previously accessed bottles and untouched controls. Leading restaurants around the world now trust their wine by the glass program to the Coravin System.


- What kind of bottles can I access with my Coravin?: The Coravin 1000 Wine System should be used with standard cylindrical shaped wine bottles (e.g. Bordeaux, Burgundy or Riesling). Do not use the Coravin 1000 on bottles containing sparkling wine or Champagne. Do not use the Coravin System on any bottle that is damaged or flawed, irregularly shaped, flat-sided, hand-blown, or etched, as these bottles may break when pressurized with the Coravin System.

- What testing has been done to prove that the Coravin System actually works?: The Coravin team has been conducted blind taste tests of bottles previously accessed with the Coravin System against control bottles from the same case with master sommeliers, masters of wine, and winemakers themselves. They have not been able to distinguish between previously accessed bottles and untouched controls. Leading restaurants around the world now trust their wine by the glass program to the Coravin System.

- What types of bottle closures are best suited for my Coravin System?: Your Coravin System will work best with natural cork closures, including closures made of agglomerated or twin-top cork which will reseal after use. You can pour wine closed with synthetic corks, but this type of closure does not reseal, and oxidation will occur after some time. After accessing a bottle with a synthetic cork, be sure to store the bottle upright as it will leak if stored on its side. Do not use the Coravin 1000 with metal, glass and screw top closures as they may damage the needle.


Features:

- Wine Access Needle:

Non-corning, medical grade needle accesses wine without disrupting or damaging the cork, allowing it to reseal and continue protecting the wine.

Teflon coating – helps the needle glide smoothly through foil and cork.

Durable construction – ensures that the needle will withstand hundreds of insertions through the cork.

Textured grip – allows for quick and safe removal and replacement of the needle.


- Coravin Capsules:

Argon gas – protects the remaining wine from oxidation. Argon is an inert gas that is regularly used during the wine making process, does not react with wine, and has no effect on the taste profile of wine.

Proprietary cap – creates a perfect seal within the system so that even months after initial use, no gas will escape.

Multi glass capacity – allows you to pour up to fifteen 5 ounce glasses of wine per capsule.


- Pouring Mechanism:

Wine-on-release trigger – press the trigger to pressurize the bottle with argon gas, release the trigger and the wine will pour out.

Ergonomic handle – allows you to easily operate the Coravin 1000 with one hand, while using the other to hold the bottle.

Angled spout – directs the flow of wine for a clean and even pour.


- Bottle Clamp:

High tension spring – provides the clamp a strong secure hold on the bottle, ensuring that the Coravin 1000 remains stable while pouring.

Adjustable width – fits on standard bottles in a variety of sizes.

Angled arms – stabilize the Coravin 1000 so that it conveniently stands on its own when not in use.


ADVANTAGES OF BUYING FROM AN INDEPENDEN WINE MERCHANT

Emphasis being place on the quality of products. They can offer a range where the bigger players cannot. We are talking a mixture of small-scale, low-volume, off-the-beaten-track, artisan producers alongside with super-premium classics from those with established and well-earned reputations.

Knowledgeable staff often de owner. They also tend to have a team of passionate, enthusiastic and knowledgeable staff. Get a good relationship with them, allow them to show you new things, they can personalize your wine choice and the road to better drinking begins.


They offer a mailing list which area a great way to find out about a range of regular customer events such as regular tastings; if you’re looking to expand your palate and your drinking repertoire, these events offer the perfect opportunity to try before.

Their web pages are very good (and usually free) source of information.

- Read their wine blog: Keep up to date with all that's going on at Weavers. Follow their thoughts, comments and whats new in tehir Wine Blog written by Mary, Philip, Chris and Don.


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE "SHOP" AND THE "CELLAR"

Weavers Wines comprises a beautiful Shop and a espectacular Cellar.

- The Shop is filled with wines which are ready to drink. Whilst some may benefit for a year or so of cellaring, the message is a straightforward one. These are wines that are to be bought ‘off the rack’ or delivered to your door.

- The Cellar is for fine wines to be laid down. These are fine wines straight from the cellars of their exclusive producers, older vintages and wines sourced by their broking team. The majority of these will be bought in bond for long-term cellaring. A live list of fine wines on their books will be instantly available to those who are regular buyers.


WEAVERS WINE CLUB

- How the Case Works: Each case is a 12 bottle selection, in which you will usually receive two bottles of each of six different wines. This gives you an opportunity to re-taste a wine or have a spare in case you have taken a bottle to a dinner party.

- Colour Coded Bottles For Your Ease: Each case is a collection of great value and great tasting wines. Every bottle is colour-coded so you can see if you should pair it with food or drink on its own.

- Pushing Your Taste Buds: The objective of the case is to push members’ taste buds. Each case comes with a comprehensive tasting guide to their selection. As ever they shy away from brands and opt for wines that simply taste great. From time to time they play a game where a mystery wine will turn up, all they ask you to do is be open minded and follow the instructions they include. After all, when did you last try a proper Lambrusco?



- Free to Join: There is no joining fee, you can come and go as you please. They believe in total customer flexibility.

- Choose how often you would like the case delivered: Simply decide how often you would like them to deliver your case:

Bi-monthly: The case is delivered at the start of February, April, June, August, October and December.

Quarterly: The case is delivered at the start of March, June, September and December.

- Choose the Style of Case You Would Like: They select three styles all reds, all whites or a mix of both. If you would like them to to match the case more to what you like or have say slightly more reds than whites then please let them know and they will happily tweak the case for you.

- Choose Where You Would Like Your Case of Wine Delivered: Again flexibiliy is the key to our membership, simply let them know where you would like the case delivered and they will do the rest.


- How Much Will it Cost: The cost per of the selection is just (£125 per case, wines usually have a retail value about £155).

Each case comes with a Tasting Booklet giving you wine facts and details on the wines.

Members also receive exclusive invitations to tastings, bonus gifts (like corkscrews) and offers for glasses and other wine related items.

- Join Now It's Simple: To join their club is simple. If you’re new to Weavers simply complete their registration form and select the option to join the Wine Club. Or, if you are registered on weaverswines.com, logon and update your profile via the ‘My Account’ page.

They will then call you for your billing details, and you can then enjoy good wine from Weavers.

- Still Not Sure?: Well why not try our sample half case? We'll send you six bottles of wine that featured in the most recent Wine Club case along with tasting notes so that you can experience what being a member would be like. They'll then give you a call next time a case is due and give you the option to opt in. As before, there is absoltuely no obligation to buy, they're just excited about what they do and want to share it with as many people as possible.


WEAVERS ONLINE SHOP SITE - WINE RETAILERS ONLINE

Based in the centre of Nottingham, Weavers supply a comprehensive and creative range of wines, spirits and liqueurs from the popular easy drinking styles through to the traditional and more unusual, rare and sought after products. Weavers dates back to 1844 and also operates the extremely popular Weavers Wine Club.

- The Challenge: Weavers Wines required a smooth and easy to use ecommerce website with an easy to manage, ever-changing online product catalogue. The website also needed a detailed search functionality to allow end users to find specific products in the shortest time possible. Weavers Wines also required the ability to have featured products displayed on the home page and have an easily editable welcome section.

- The Approach: The e-commerce suite was used to drive, manage and control online orders including delivery details and transaction history.

The product catalogue was created in an extremely flexible format to give Weavers website administrators full control over their seasonal product range.

- The Results: Its fair to say that Weavers Wines has become a friend of the company with frequent visits for their staff to the highly popular Weavers wine-tasting evenings. This is testimony to the work they put in and to the results achieved through the website.

The website has helped Weavers survive and flourish in the highly competitive wine merchants market place dominated by large supermarket or chain operations.


AUTUMN GRAN TASTING WITH URBINA WINES FROM RIOJA

Our tasting season continues. Alan, Mary and Philip, the Directors at Weavers, would like to invite you to a tasting on Thursday 8th October 2015, at the Nottingham Galleries of Justice.

This is great evening, with over ten tables of wines spirits and liqueurs for you to taste, wines from all the corners of the world along with some fantastic new additions.

When thinking about the wines of Spain it’s hard to look past the wonderful oak aged reds of Rioja, and it isn’t hard to see why. Theyr’e complex but not too heavy, they’re extremely versatlie food wines and have enormous ageing potential.

Urbina is a long established business from the heart of Rioja. We are delighted to have Pedro on hand to present his classic style Riojas.


Urbina Crianza 2008 (Red Label) - £14.50

Cherry red in colour with ripe cassis and black currant aroms, this is an excellent example of a classic style Rioja. Great depth and structure on the palate with a long lasting finish.

Made from a blend of around 95% Tempranillo and 5% Mazuelo y Graciano from Urbina's own vineyards where vines have an average age of around 20 years. The wine was macerated for 28 days in stainless steel tanks before spending 12 months in oak barrels. It then spends a further 6 months ageing  in bottle before release.

Urbina Reserva 1998 (Red Label) - £20.80

This blend of Tempranillo (95%) and Graciano and Mazuelo (5%) from 30+ year old vines is aged for 2 years in American oak casks (12 months in new oak, 12 months in 7 year old oak).  Savoury on the nose with a distinct vanilla oak bouquet. The palate is elegant and attractive with concentrated, ripe fruit and excellent length. The finish is classy and complex.

Urbina Gran Reserva Especial 1994 (Blue Label) - £28.75

This stunning Rioja Gran Reserva is a blend of Tempranillo (95%), Mazuelo and Graciano (5%). It spends 24 months being aged in oak barrels, (12 months in new, 12 in 3-5 year old oak) and over 5 years in bottle before it is released. It is powerful, richand seductive and exhibits vegetable/tobacco aromas nose. On the palate it is classy and complex with perfect harmony of oak and glorious flavours of prunes, dates and sweet raisins. The mouthfeel is silky and creamy with a very long and full finish. A splendid old vintage.


LA RIOJA WINE REGION

- Rioja: Rioja is divided into three sub-districts (Riojas Alta, Alavesa and Baja) and the varying conditions within each suit different grape varieties. Grapes from all three can be blended together.

- Vines and Styles: Red Rioja is often a blended wine and four grape varieties are traditionally permitted. Tempranillo is usually the most prominent and imparts the fresh fruit flavours, whilst Garnacha (Grenache) provides body and Mazuelo (Cariñena or Carignan) and Graciano are there for warmth and finesse. Once the wine is fermented (usually in stainless steel) and blended, it is almost always introduced to oak (those that are not are classed as joven or sin crianza) and then aged in the bottle. This is strictly regulated. A crianza wine must spend six months in oak and eighteen in the bottle, a reserva has been in oak for a year and will not be released until its fourth year, and a gran reserva is six years old when it goes on sale and has spent eighteen months in oak.

The white wines are made from Viura (known as Macabeo in France), Malvasia and Garnacha Blanca. They are usually fermented in stainless steel and are often meant to be drunk young and fresh, but some examples are rich and perfect for aging.

- Key Vintages: Both 2001 and 1998 are considered to be exceptional vintages and 2003, 2002 and 1999 were all judged to be good.  Wines from these years are still readily available.

- Climate and Conditions: The three sub-districts of Riojas Alavesa, Alta and Baja have differing climates and soil types that allow the whole variety of grapes to thrive.


- Rioja Alta: Tempranillo is the main grape of this area. It produces fruit-laden wines, but can lack structure and capacity for aging and is often blended. Graciano is also suited to the conditions. Rioja Alta has around 20,000ha under vine and is the biggest sub-district of Rioja.

Climate and Conditions: The vines here are grown up to 600m above sea level to avoid the blistering heat, but not so high as to catch the punishing northerly winds. Long warm days and cool nights extend the ripening process of the eager Tempranillo grape (whose name is derived from the word for early) and ensure maximum flavours are extracted from it. Clay soils do not reflect the heat but do retain the moisture, and in the Rioja Alta these are beneficial characteristics.

Urbina Crianza 2008 (Red Label) - £14.50
Urbina Reserva 1998 (Red Label) - £20.80
Urbina Gran Reserva Especial 1994 (Blue Label) - £28.75

Martínez Lacuesta Blanco Rioja 2014 - £10.60
Martinez Lacuesta Rosado Rioja Spain 2014 - £10.64
Martínez Lacuesta Madurado 6 Meses en Bodega 2014 - £10.94
Martínez Lacuesta Crianza 2007 -
Martínez Lacuesta Ventilla 71 2011 - £24.85

Marqués de Cáceres Blanco Rioja 2014 - £8.95
Marqués de Cáceres Rosé, Rioja Spain 2014 - £8.84
Marqués de Cáceres Reserva 2009 - £16.94


- Rioja Alavesa: Similar to the Rioja Alta, but smaller in terms of area under vine, Tempranillo and Graciano are particularly well suited to the prevailing conditions. They provide the fruit and finesse of quality Rioja. The white Viura is grown here and is sometimes added to the red wines of the area for acidity.

Climate and Conditions: It is hot, but locating vineyards at 400-600m above sea level and planting in clay soils that do not reflect or retain the heat help to create the ideal conditions.  Cool nights allied to warm days allows the Tempranillo grape to extend its ripening season and maximise its flavours.

Tobelos Barrel-Fermented Blanco Rioja 2014 - £14.95
Tobelos Crianza 2011 - £13.94
Tahon de Tobelos Reserva 2010 - £24.95

Poco a Poco Tempranillo Bodegas Lagunas de Laguardia 2014 - £9.65


- Rioja Baja: Garnacha thrives here, as does the Mazuelo grape. The conditions in the Rioja Baja ensure they ripen easily and provide softness, weight, warmth and high alcohol content for the finished blend.

Climate and Conditions: It is a Mediterranean climate in this part of the Rioja district and it comes as no surprise that in vineyards as low as 300m above sea level the Garnacha (Grenache) grape, so at home in the south of France, does well. The soil is sandy and alluvial.

Monte Araya Vendimia Seleccionada (Bodegas Medievo) 2013 - £8.65
Tuercebotas Graciano Crianza Rioja (Bodegas Medievo) 2012 - £16.55

Rioja Vega Crianza 2012 (Navarra) - £10.55


THERE IS MORE TO SPAIN THAN RIOJA

When thinking about the wines of Spain it’s hard to look past the wonderful oak aged reds of Rioja, and it isn’t hard to see why. Theyr’e complex but not too heavy, they’re extremely versatlie food wines and have enormous ageing potential. Perhaps the only downside tot he massive popularity of Rioja is that it has the effect of hiding many of the other wonderful styles of Spanish wine which we should all be excited about.

- Navarra, Rioja’s Close Neighbour: Up until fairly recently the neighbouring DO’s of Navarra and Rioja were about neck and neck in terms of quality and popularity. Both benefited hugely from the fact that the damaging Phylloxera crisis arrived in south West France long before it appeared in northern Spain.

When the vine devastating louse did eventually arrive the vineyards of navarra were able to recover relatively quickly but never got back to their former glories with only around a third of the former vineyard area still in use today.

What was Navarras loss was Riojas gain as the region continued to go from strength to strength and now even occupies some of Navarra’s former vineyards. The wines of navarra differ from those of their more illustrious neighbour in a couple of ways. The first is that the main rape variety planted is Garnacha rather than Tempranillo. These tend to be slightly less structured wines and as a result see less ageing in the bottle and in oak. They do however offer fantastic value for money and more often than not a bottle of £10 Navarra will have the beating of a Rioja at the same price. Definitely one to look out for.


- Priorat, the Hidden Gem: If you’ve ever asked Philip about his favourite wines in the shop he will no doubt have given you a long talk about the utter brilliance of both the reds and whites from this criminally underrated region in North Eastern Spain.

Priorat is an isolated Catalunyan DO just inland from Tarragona which is most famous for producing one of the few first-class wine made from Garnacha (Grenache) in the world. The vines used for quality priorat are amongst the oldest in the world and yeilds are unbelievably small. These factors undoubtedly contribute to the sheer power and concentration of the wines.

Prior to the 1990′s the wine making techniques used to make Priorat had barely changed since the 12th Century when the Carthusian Monks first established the priory after which the wine is named. During the 1990′s, as with much of the rest of Spain, Priorat underwent somthing of a cultural and technological revolution with the true potential of the region being recognised. Since then the quality and quantity of wines coming out of Priorat have increased dramatically with over 50 producers now operating. We’re proud to say that we have three of these on our books and I can’t reccomend them highly enough.


- Sherry, On Its Way Back: They make no appologies for loving Sherry. In their opinion Sherry is the most underrated and undervalued style of wine in the world. It’s one of these wine’s that enthusiasts will tell you is just on the cusp of a comeback but sadly this has been the case for at least a decade.

The fact that Sherry is out of fashion does however keep the price relatively low which is great news from those who appreciate it. Sherry can be made in a vast array of styles from the bitingly dry to the intensely sweet and everything inbetween. It is also an ecellent food wine. A glass of dry fino sherry with a bolw of olives and cured meats on a summers day is one of the best culinary pairings possible. Alternately try the sweet, super sticky Pedro Ximenez poured over vanilla ice cream, amazing.


- Cava, Spain’s Sparkle: Whilst Champagne has always maintained its position as the worlds premier style of sparkling wine the race for second place is traditionally more of a cyclical affair. At the moment it is Prosecco that lays claim to the title of the best of the rest but this has not alway been the case and it was once Cava that people turned to as a cheaper, lighter alternative to Champagne.

As is so often the case Cava was a victim of its own success. As more people began to discver this affordable yet delicious traditional method sparkler ways had to be found to supply the growing market with more and more volume at evermore competetive prices. The inevitable consequence of this is that shortcuts were made, quality suffered and so did the reputation of the Cava brand. Eventually the bubble burst and much like with Aussie Chardonnay and Greman Riesling an entire generation of wine consumers we’re left with the memory of poor quality, bulk wine. Thankfully enough time has now passed that the majority of the bed stuff has left the market and we’re back to the high quality, affordable Cavas that we used to enjoy back in the 80′s and 90′s.


WHAT MAKES A FINE WINE BY PHILIP TREASE - A VERY GOOD OF ITS KIND

What makes a fine wine? This question has been puzzling me for years and to be honest I really do not think there is a cut and dry answer and, as everything in the wine trade, this is all very subjective.

Writing this article on my laptop, I thought I would start by defining the word ‘fine’.  What does fine mean? The dictionary response came back as ‘adjective, of very high quality; very good of its kind.’

So this got me thinking.  If you have two Sauvignon Blancs, one at £7.00 and, say, a Pouilly-Fumé at the £25 mark, are both of fine wines? If we take the definition ‘good of its kind’ then yes I would say these are fine wines at the stated price point, but can you compare the two, if the first Sauvignon Blanc is from Chile? As a wine buyer it is my job to find the wines that are the best of its kind and advise the customer accordingly.


This then comes back to a question on what the customer is prepared to pay.  If your everyday budget for a bottle of Sauvignon Blanc is between around £7.00 and you really enjoyed that wine then, yes I would class such a product as a fine wine. Can you compare this product with the Poulliy-Fumé, would the Poully-Fumé always take first place with customers? Well perhaps to some it would, proving they are willing to pay more for the product. But really this goes back to the dictionary definition ‘very good of its kind’, in this sense you cannot compare the two.


Certain wine regions and product brands class themselves as fine wines, here perhaps they take the meaning to be that of very high quality.  If you have been to one of my tastings you have probably heard me address the topic of price vs quality, how can you ever put a price on what you enjoy?

I have been very privileged to taste some of the worlds ‘finest wines’ from First Growth Clarets, sought after New World cult wine, through to very rare releases of top Champagne.  Yes I have to agree these products are all of ‘very high quality’ and the phrase ‘very good of its kind’ can be applied. This is the subjective part, just because a wine is hundreds or even thousands of pounds more than perhaps you are prepared to pay, does this this make the wine ‘finer’?

So, from the merchant’s perspective, I have always felt that the term ‘fine wine’ makes a merchant look expensive. The real test for me relates to the customers perspective. Is the wine that they are drinking of very high quality? Is it very good of its kind? Ultimately it is my job to find that wine.  If I succeed, and I like to think that we do achieve this for our customers, then this makes us a ‘Fine Wine’ merchant, doesn’t it?

Baresca - Best Tapas Fine Restaurant in Nottingham City Centre

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BARESCA - TAPAS FINE RESTAURANT IN NOTTINGHAM

Baresca is the newest venture of the Perkin’s family (Jon Perkins, David Perkins and Sarah Newham), they opened this new and fine tapas restaurant in Nottingham. Serving exciting tapas menus reflecting and revolving around the flavours of Spain and near Mediterranean neighbours.

This new place to eat is located on Byard Lane near the Lace Market Tram stop in the Nottingham city centre. It is a pretty cool place to hang out for a drink, a coffee, some tapas, and as it happens a leisurely brunch or dinner, the atmosphere is good, modern Spanish, laid back, and the staff is very attentive. The menu has many options for carnivores, pescatarians and vegetarian. With a good value set menu for £9.95

- Name: Baresca
- Address: 9 Byard Ln, Nottingham Byard Ln, UK
- Telephone: +44 115 948 3900
- Web: www.baresca.co.uk


- The Interior: The Ground Floor interior combines a modern take on the wonderfully evocative street markets scattered around Barcelona and the hustle and bustle of the nearby Old Town. baresca’s subterranean cellar bar brings a touch of Spain’s earthy bodega bars to Nottingham.

The industrial heritage of 9, Byard Lane has been honoured by touches of scaffolding, exposed piping and brickwork alongside the tones of a muted colour palette. On that canvas, baresca enjoys a compelling mix of contemporary and classic cues: think sparkling Italian marble tables aside alongside antique Spanish leather chairs given a new lease of life.


At the Ground Floor entrance, baresca’s Market Café has been designed to be enjoyed all day every day. Amid fresh herbs and produce flown in from Spain, early birds can enjoy baresca’s morning coffee – their own blend is freshly ground and expertly brewed by baresca’s trained baristas.

Continuing to place the theatre of food at the heart of the space, the light and airy First Floor enjoys the sights, sounds and smells of baresca’s vibrant open kitchen. The bar still occupies the same position, only now half of it has been turned in to an open plan kitchen where you can watch dish after dish being lined up on the pass.


The cellar, baresca’s basement hideaway, has been designed to communicate the nooks and crannies, street art and relaxed styling of Barcelona’s laid back bodegas. After dark, diners and drinkers can chill in lowly lit booths, sumptuous leather seating or at the inviting concrete topped bar. On Thursday and Friday evening, guests can enjoy the best of the city’s acoustic, jazz and funk sets.


- The Food: Baresca serves five different menus: breakfast, menu del dia, main menu, escabeanies menu and the cellar menu.

Served from 10am Sunday to Friday and 9am on Saturdays, baresca breakfast menu will feature a hearty ‘breakfast completo’, new flatbreads, patatas, chorizo, Catalan bread and eggs accompanied by that wonderful coffee.

At £9.95 for three courses, menu del dia is baresca’s high value lunch menu which replicates the Spanish model of offering visitors fantastic lunchtime quality at an affordable price: flatbreads, two tapas, a side, coffee and a sweet treat await.


baresca’s main menu features a wealth of individual dishes sourced directly from committed local and Spanish producers and suppliers, while the escabeanies breakfast and main menus offer gentle (nutritious) Mediterranean twists on classic kid’s food. Cellar9 has its own menu featuring cold meats, cheeses, flatbreads and more, specifically tailored to work in tandem with the bar’s extensive drinks offering.

baresca’s food benefits from a completely re-fitted kitchen replete with an imposing chargrill oven and the restaurant’s own Italian curing cabinet allowing the team to cure their own meats.


- The Drinks: Led by Bar Manager Will Haley, who was training at a top Barcelona drinks and cocktail school, highlights on baresca’s drinks list include their gin botanica range, their own organic beers, Spanish craft beers, cocktails and cavas, jerez and sherries as well as a fleet of wines hand-picked by the restaurant’s three owners.


BARESCA BREAKFAST COMPLETO

Your style of eggs, sausage, dry cured bacon, mushrooms, patatas, morcilla, tomato, chargrilled bread, coffee or tea & a fresh juice 9,95£

Baresca Flatbreads:
Their folded flatbreads are freshly prepared & stone baked to order; all served with brava sauce on the side egg v 4,25£ dry cured bacon 4,75£ dry cured bacon & egg 5,95£ sausage 4,75£ sausage & egg 5,95£ sausage, dry cured bacon & egg 6,50£


Breakfast:
- Croissant homemade jam v 2,25£
- Toasted fruit bread homemade jam v 2,25£
- Porridge with honey & almonds v 3,75£
- Baresca yoghurt pot with fruit compote & granola v 3,95£
- Catalan bread & manchego chargrilled bread with tomato, topped with manchego cheese 4,50£
- Catalan bread & eggs chargrilled bread with tomato, topped with two fried eggs v 4,95£
- Scrambled egg with fried onion, patatas, migas with chargrilled bread 5,95£
- Chorizo, patatas & eggs served with chargrilled bread 6,50£


- Scrambled egg with dry cured bacon & migas with chargrilled bread 6,50£
- Polenta fritters, tomato & scrambled egg with chargrilled bread v 5,50£
- Morcilla eggs benedict black pudding with poached eggs, chargrilled bread & hollandaise sauce 6,95£
- Scrambled egg & smoked salmon with chargrilled bread 7,95£
- Full baresca breakfast your style of eggs, sausage, dry cured bacon, mushrooms, patatas, morcilla, tomato, chargrilled bread 7,95£
- Jamón eggs benedict with truffled hollandaisehand carved bellota ham with poached eggs, chargrilled bread & truffled hollandaise sauce 9,50£


Barista coffee:
- A baresca barista coffee using a blend from our friends at 200˚ in Nottingham is the perfect way to ease your daily grind
- Espresso 1,80 / 2,40 cortado 2,00£
- Americano 2,20£ cappuccino 2,50£
- Latte 2,60£ café con leche 2,50£ mocha 2,70£ hot chocolate 2,70£ teas 2,75£

- Churros & chocolate Spanish doughnuts with chocolate sauce 4,75£


Freshly made cold drinks:
- Superfruit smoothie acai, blueberry, mango & strawberry 4,50£
- Goberry smoothie raspberry, blueberry & mango 4,50£
- Powergranate smoothie pomegranate, strawberry, blackcurrant & apple 4,50£
- Tropical smoothie pineapple, mango & papaya 4,50£

Milkshakes:
strawberry/banana/chocolate chip/toffee fudge all 4,50£

Cocktails & fizz:
- Baresca bucks bottle of house cava & a carafe of orange juice for two to share 28,00£
- Baresca bellini cava, peach puree, lemon, sugar 6,50£
- Bloody mary vodka, tomato juice, spices & amontillado sherry 7,00£


MENU DEL DIA

Meat:
- Pork bocatas slow cooked pork sliders, guindilla mayonnaise
- Charcuterie plate fennel & capers GF
- Chicken wings in a sweet chilli & sesame jam, coriander
- Baresca meatballs tomato sauce & parmesan GF
- Seared calf’s liver creamed potato, caramelised onions, brandy cream sauce GF
- Chorizo & patatas with fried egg
- Sautéed morcilla caramelised apple

Fish:
- Mussel, smoked salmon & leek gratin
- Mackerel escabeche salsa verde, crostini 5,50£
- Devilled whitebait aïoli
- Squid bocatas buttermilk fried squid sliders, aïoli
- Tuna salad potato, cucumber, red onion, olives, tomato, sherry vinegar dressing GF
- Fillet of hake rosemary potatoes, preserved lemon & green olives GF


Sides:
- Moroccan couscous sultanas, red onion, chilli, roast squash, yoghurt & almonds
- Baresca cauliflower cheese toasted almonds, chilli flakes
- Puy lentil chilli, piquillo pepper, feta & coriander GF
- patatas bravas

Vegetables:
- Smoked corn & chilli empanadillas watercress mayonnaise
- Pistou with fried egg & parmesanspiced ratatouille GF
- Polenta ‘chips’ mange tout & sesame salad, romesco sauce
- Mushroom risoni rice shaped pasta, mushrooms, parmesan & fresh herb cream sauce

Coffee & sweet treat *espresso or americano



MAIN MENU (FROM THE BAR)

Para picar:
- Baresca rosemary & sea salt focaccia with olive oil or aïoli 2,50£
- Marinated pitted olives GF v 2,85£
- Manzanilla olives GF 3,50
- Guindillas spicy pickled peppers GF 2,50£
- Home smoked marcona almonds GF 2,95£
- Spanish anchovies GF 2,95£
- Rosemary flatbread hummus, carrot & cumin dip 3,85£ / 7,50£
- Catalan bread chargrilled bread, fresh tomato 3,85£
- Padrón peppers with sea salt v 5,25£
- Heritage salad cherry tomatoes, purple & golden carrot, radish, beetroot, frisée lettuce, quail’s egg 4,75£


- Smoked corn & chilli empanadillas watercress mayonnaise v 3,75£
- Tuna salad potato, cucumber, red onion, olives, tomato, sherry vinegar dressing GF 4,95£
- Panzanella salad feta, tomato, olives, red onion, cucumber, sherry vinegar dressing, garlic croutons 3,95£
- Puy lentil chilli, piquillo pepper, feta & coriander salad v 3,50£
- Potato & onion tortilla GF 4,95£
- Prawn & chorizo tortilla GF 5,95£
- Jamón & spinach tortilla GF 5,95£


Frituras:
- Halloumi fritters tempura batter, guindilla mayonnaise 4,95£
- Chicken wings in a sweet chilli & sesame jam, coriander 5,95£
- Carrot & courgette fritters coriander & lime yoghurt, dukkha 3,75£
- Buttermilk fried squid lime & aïoli 5,50£
- Cheese croquettes 3,65 ham & cheese croquettes 3,95£
- Butternut squash croquettes 3,65£


Cold meats:
- Hand carved ibérico de bellota ham 50g GF 12,50£
- Jamón de teruel 18 month aged serrano ham 50g GF 7,50£
- Ibérico de bellota chorizo 50g GF 5,95£
- Spanish meats selection with fennel & capers GF 10,95£
- Chorizo paprika spiced ibérico pork sausage
- Salchichón ibérico pork & black peppercorn sausage
- Lomo artisan cured & smoked pork loin
- Jamón de teruel 18 month aged serrano ham
- Fuet traditional Catalan cured pork sausage


Cheese:
- Rio vero goats cheese handmade near the foot of the Pyrenees, served with fresh honeycomb & torta de aceite 7,50£
- Spanish cheese selection with focaccia & garnishes 10,50£
- Fuente los angeles creamy blue cheese, Valdeon valley
- Bonvallis aged rosemary sheeps cheese, La Mancha
- Laguna pasta blanda de oveja soft fresh sheeps cheese, Guadarrama mountains
- Castel morela mild semi-soft goats cheese, cave matured, Valencia
- Mahón moist cows milk cheese, Menorca


Baresca flatbreads:
- Baresca flatbreads inspired by the Catalan coca our flatbreads are freshly prepared to order & stone baked
- Garlic & mozzarella 3,95/7,50£
- Onion, pepper & thyme shallot purée 4,50/8,50£
- Tomato, mozzarella & fresh basil 4,50/8,50£
- Truffled mushroom shallot purée 4,95/9,50£
- Spanish anchovy tomato, olives, capers 4,95/9,50£
- Mozzarella, parmesan, red onion & thyme 4,95/9,50£
- Beetroot, goats cheese & thyme 4,95/9,50£
- Asparagus & goats cheese toasted almonds, truffle oil 5,25/9,95£
- Chorizo, mozzarella & tomato 5,50/10,50£
- Fuet sausage pepper, onion, blue cheese & chilli 5,50/10,50£
- Smoked bacon, mushroom, spinach truffle oil, parmesan, fried egg 5,50/10,50£
- Charcuteria chorizo, lomo, salchichón, chilli flakes, red onion, olives, tomato, pickled fennel, parmesan & manchego 6,50/11,95£

Selection boards:
- Mixed Catalan bread, chorizo, lomo, bonvallis, padrón peppers, ham & cheese croquettes 12,50£
- Cold meats & cheese chargrilled bread, olives, bonvallis, fuente los angeles, mahón, jamón de teruel, chorizo, fuet 11,95£


MAIN MENU (FROM THE KITCHEN)

Meat:
- Scotch egg shallot purée, basil oil 4,75£
- Baresca meatballs tomato sauce & parmesan GF 4,95£
- Baby chorizo glazed in honey & sherry vinegar GF 5,25£
- Moroccan lamb stew yoghurt & almonds GF 6,50£
- Moorish pork kebabs spicy red mojo GF 6,95£
- Chargrilled chicken breast spiced saffron, pine nut & almond sauce GF 6,95£
- Chorizo patatas & fried egg 5,50£
- Slow cooked pork fillet & pork cheek fritterceleriac purée, apple 7,95£
- Chargrilled beef skewers served rare with truffled mushrooms GF 5,95£
- Chargrilled fillet of lamb aubergine, shallot purée, smoked almonds & basil pesto GF 7,50£
- Slow braised Iberian pork cheek morcilla sausage, smoked bacon cabbage, creamed potato, jus GF 8,50£


Fish:
- Mackerel escabeche salsa verde, crostini 5,50£
- Seared salmon fillet in lime & coriander, chargrilled baby gem, harissa mayonnaise GF 6,95£
- Chargrilled octopus chorizo, potato, piquillo pepper & mint, spring onion & cucumber GF 6,75£
- Fillet of hake rosemary potatoes, preserved lemon & green olives GF 7,95£
- Seared king scallops with morcilla & cauliflower purée GF 7,95£
- Lemon & thyme breaded monkfish shallot purée, capers, gherkins & spring onion 8,50£
- Garlic & chilli prawns lemon & parsley butter GF 9,95£


Vegetables:
- Polenta ‘chips’ mange tout & sesame salad, romesco sauce 4,50£
- Potato tagine olives & harissa GF 4,50£
- Mushroom risoni rice shaped pasta, mushroom, parmesan & fresh herb cream sauce 4,50£
- Patatas bravas served with aïoli 3,75£
- Patatas parmesan served with aïoli 3,75£
- Moroccan couscous sultanas, red onion, chilli, roast squash, yoghurt & almonds 3,95£
- Baresca cauliflower cheese toasted almonds, chilli flakes 4,25£
- Chargrilled asparagus & fried duck egg chargrilled bread, toasted almonds, blue cheese sauce 5,95£
- Pistou with egg & parmesan spiced ratatouille, capers & fried egg GF 4,95£
- Chargrilled courgettes & goats cheese pan tostado salsa verde 4,50£
- Sweet potato gnocchi mushrooms, spinach, sage, parmesan & truffle butter 5,25£


ESCABEANIES MENU

Escabeanies breakfast:
4,95, small glass of fruit juice & baby hot chocolate choose from
pineapple salad with homemade sorbet
scrambled egg on toast
ham & cheese omelette
bacon or sausage bocatas

Escabeanies main menu:
5,95 dessert & small glass of
fruit juice, pepsi, lemonade or cordial
available 12-6.45pm every day


Choose from:
- Baby rice-shaped pasta cheese sauce & garlic bread
- Escabeanie burgers salad & fried potatoes
- Freshly made stone baked cheese & tomato pizzasalad
- Buttermilk fried chicken fried potatoes & salad
- Butternut squash croquettes garlic bread & salad
- Mildly spiced chicken in a peanut & almond sauce with Moroccan couscous
- Meatballs in tomato sauce baby rice-shaped pasta & garlic bread

For dessert:
- Chocolate brownie sundae
- Banana & peanut butter brownie sundae
- Churros chocolate sauce
- Choice of homemade ice cream


SPANISH TAPAS

Tapas (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈtapas]) are a wide variety of appetizers, or snacks, in Spanish cuisine. They may be cold (such as mixed olives and cheese) or hot (such as chopitos, which are battered, fried baby squid). In select bars in Spain, tapas have evolved into an entire, sophisticated cuisine. In Spain, patrons of tapas can order many different tapas and combine them to make a full meal. In some Central American countries, such snacks are known as bocas. In Mexico, the vegetarian varieties of similar dishes are called "botanas."

The serving of tapas is designed to encourage conversation, because people are not so focused upon eating an entire meal that is set before them. Also, in some countries it is customary for diners to stand and move about while eating tapas.


- History: The word "tapas" is derived from the Spanish verb tapar, "to cover," cognate to English top. Before the 19th century, European roads were in bad condition. Some were originally old Roman roads (viae romanae), some were trails dating from the Middle Ages. Travelling was slow and exhausting. Most people could not read or write, and Spain was no exception. Inns, called posadas, albergues or bodegas, grew up along the roads, offering meals and rooms, plus fresh horses for travellers. Since few innkeepers could write and few travellers read, inns offered their guests a sample of the dishes available, on a "tapa" (the word for pot cover in Spanish). In fact, a "tapa" was (and still is) a small portion of any kind of Spanish cuisine.

According to The Joy of Cooking, the original tapas were the slices of bread or meat which sherry drinkers in Andalusian taverns used to cover their glasses between sips. This was a practical measure meant to prevent fruit flies from hovering over the sweet sherry (see below for more explanations). The meat used to cover the sherry was normally ham or chorizo, which are both very salty and activate thirst. Because of this, bartenders and restaurant owners created a variety of snacks to serve with sherry, thus increasing their alcohol sales. The tapas eventually became as important as the sherry.


Tapas have evolved through Spanish history by incorporating new ingredients and influences. Most of the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Romans, who introduced the olive and irrigation methods. The discovery of the New World brought the introduction of tomatoes, sweet and chili peppers, maize (corn) and potatoes. These were readily accepted and easily grown in Spain's microclimates.

There are many tapas competitions throughout Spain. There is only one National Tapas competition, which is celebrated every year in November. Since 2008, the City of Valladolid and the International School of Culinary Arts have celebrated the International Tapas Competition for Culinary Schools. Various schools from around the world come to Spain annually to compete for the best tapa concept.


- Etymology: Though the primary meaning of tapa is cover or lid, it has in Spain also become a term for this style of food. The origin of this new meaning is uncertain but there are several theories:

As mentioned above, a commonly cited explanation is that an item, be it bread or a flat card, etc., would often be placed on top of a drink to protect it from fruit flies; at some point it became a habit to top this "cover" with a snack.

It is also commonly said that since one would be standing while eating a tapa in traditional Spanish bars, they would need to place their plates on top of their drinks to eat, making it a top.

Some believe the name originated sometime around the 16th century when tavern owners from Castile-La Mancha found out that the strong taste and smell of mature cheese could help disguise that of bad wine, thus "covering" it, and started offering free cheese when serving cheap wine.


Others believe the tapas tradition began when king Alfonso X of Castile recovered from an illness by drinking wine with small dishes between meals. After regaining his health, the king ordered that taverns would not be allowed to serve wine to customers unless it was accompanied by a small snack or "tapa".

Another popular explanation says that King Alfonso XIII stopped by a famous tavern in Cádiz (Andalusian city) where he ordered a cup of wine. The waiter covered the glass with a slice of cured ham before offering it to the king, to protect the wine from the beach sand, as Cádiz is a windy place. The king, after drinking the wine and eating the tapa, ordered another wine "with the cover".

A final possibility surrounds Felipe III, who passed a law in an effort to curb rowdy drunken behavior, particularly among soldiers and sailors. The law stated that when one purchased a drink, the bartender was to place over the mouth of the mug or goblet a cover or lid containing some small quantity of food as part of the purchase of the beverage. The hope being that the food would slow the effects of the alcohol, and fill the stomach to prevent over imbibing.


SPANISH EATING CUSTOMS

In Spain, dinner is usually served between 9 and 11 p.m. (sometimes as late as midnight), leaving significant time between work and dinner. Therefore, Spaniards often go "bar hopping" (Spanish: Ir de tapas) and eat tapas in the time between finishing work and having dinner. Since lunch is usually served between 1 and 4 p.m., another common time for tapas is weekend days around noon as a means of socializing before proper lunch at home.

It is very common for a bar or a small local restaurant to have eight to 12 different kinds of tapas in warming trays with glass partitions covering the food. They are often very strongly flavored with garlic, chilies or paprika, cumin, salt, pepper, saffron and sometimes in plentiful amounts of olive oil. Often, one or more of the choices is seafood (mariscos), often including anchovies, sardines or mackerel in olive oil, squid or others in a tomato-based sauce, sometimes with the addition of red or green peppers or other seasonings. It is rare to see a tapas selection not include one or more types of olives, such as Manzanilla or Arbequina olives. One or more types of bread are usually available to eat with any of the sauce-based tapas.


In Andalucia and certain places in Madrid, Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, Asturias, Extremadura, when one goes to a bar and orders a drink, often a tapa will be served with it for free. As a drink, it is usual to ask for a caña (small beer), a chato (glass of wine) or a mosto (grape juice). In several cities, entire zones are dedicated to tapas bars, each one serving its own unique dish. In León, one can find the Barrio Húmedo, in Logroño Calle Laurel and in Burgos Calle de la Sombrerería and Calle de San Lorenzo.

Sometimes, especially in northern Spain, they are also called pinchos (pintxos in Basque) in Asturias, in Navarre, in La Rioja (Spain), the Basque Country, Cantabria and in some provinces, such as Salamanca, because many of them have a pincho or toothpick through them. The toothpick is used to keep whatever the snack is made of from falling off the slice of bread and to keep track of the number of tapas the customer has eaten. Differently priced tapas have different shapes or have toothpicks of different sizes. The price of a single tapa ranges from one to two euros. Another name for them is banderillas (diminutive of bandera "flag"), in part because some of them resemble the colorful spears used in bullfighting.

Tapas can be "upgraded" to bigger portions, equivalent to half a dish (media ración) or a whole one (ración). This is generally more economical when tapas are being ordered by more than one person. The portions are usually shared by diners, and a meal made up of raciones resembles a Chinese dim sum, Korean banchan or Middle Eastern mezze.


COMMON SPANISH TAPAS

- Aceitunas: Olives, sometimes with a filling of anchovies or red bell pepper
- Albóndigas: Meatballs with sauce
- Allioli: "Garlic and oil" the classic ingredients are only garlic, oil and salt, but the most common form of it includes mayonnaise and garlic, served on bread or with boiled or grilled potatoes, fish, meat or vegetables.
- Bacalao: Salted cod loin sliced very thinly, usually served with bread and tomatoes
- Banderillas or pinchos de encurtidos: Are cold tapas made from small food items pickled in vinegar and skewered together. They are also known as gildas or piparras and consist of pickled items, like olives, baby onions, baby cucumbers, chiles (guindilla) with pieces of pepper and other vegetables. Sometimes they include an anchovy.
- Boquerones: White anchovies served in vinegar (boquerones en vinagre) or deep fried
- Calamares or rabas: Rings of battered squid
- Carne mechada: Slow-cooked, tender beef.
- Chopitos: Battered and fried tiny squid, also known as puntillitas
- Cojonuda (superb female): A kind of pincho, it consists of a slice of Spanish morcilla with a fried quail egg over a slice of bread. It is very common in Burgos, because the most well-known and widespread Spanish morcilla is from there. It can also be prepared with a little strip of red, spicy pepper.


- Cojonudo (superb male): A kind of pincho, it consists of a slice of Spanish chorizo with a fried quail egg over a slice of bread.
- Chorizo al vino: Chorizo sausage slowly cooked in wine
- Chorizo a la sidra: Chorizo sausage slowly cooked in cider
- Croquetas: a common sight in bar counters and homes across Spain, served as a tapa, a light lunch, or a dinner along with a salad
- Empanadillas: Large or small turnovers filled with meats and vegetables[10]
- Ensaladilla rusa: (Olivier salad), made with mixed boiled vegetables with tuna, olives and mayonnaise
- Gambas: prawns sauteed in salsa negra (peppercorn sauce), al ajillo (with garlic), or pil-pil (with chopped chili peppers)
- Mejillones rellenos: Stuffed mussels, called tigres ("tigers") in Navarre because of the spicy taste
- Papas arrugadas or papas con mojo (see Canarian wrinkly potatoes) (Canary Islands): Very small, new potatoes boiled in salt water similar to sea water, then drained, slightly roasted and served with mojo, a garlic, Spanish paprika, red pepper, cumin seed, olive oil, wine vinegar, salt and bread miga (fresh bread crumbs without the crust) to thicken it
- Patatas bravas or papas bravas: Fried potato dices (sometimes parboiled and then fried, or simply boiled) served with salsa brava a spicy tomato sauce, sometimes served also with mayo or aioli
- Pimientos de Padrón: Small green peppers originally from Padrón (a municipality in the province of A Coruña, Galicia) that are fried in olive oil or served raw, most are mild, but a few in each batch are quite spicy.


- Pulpo a la gallega (Galician-style octopus): Or polbo á feira (octopus in the trade fair style) in Galicia, is cooked in boiling water (preferably in a copper cauldron or pan) and served hot in olive or vegetable oil. The octopus pieces are seasoned with substantial amounts of paprika, giving it its recognisable red color, and sea salt for texture and flavour.
- Pincho moruno (Moorish spike): A stick with spicy meat, made of pork, lamb or chicken
- Queso con anchoas: Castilla or Manchego cured cheese with anchovies on top
- Raxo: Pork seasoned with garlic and parsley, with added paprika, called zorza
- Setas al Ajillo: Fresh mushrooms sauteed with olive oil and garlic.[11]
- Solomillo a la castellana: Fried pork scallops, served with an onion and/or Cabrales cheese sauce
- Solomillo al whisky: Fried pork scallops, marinated using whisky, brandy or white wine and olive oil
- Tortilla de patatas (Spanish omelette) or tortilla española: A type of omelet containing fried chunks of potatoes and sometimes onion
- Tortilla paisana: a tortilla containing vegetables and chorizo (similar to frittata)
- Tortillitas de camarones (Andalusia): Battered prawn fritters
- Zamburiñas: Renowned Galician scallops (Chlamys varia), often served in a marinera, tomato-based sauce


REGIONAL VARIATIONS

The term tapas narrowly refers to a type of Spanish cuisine, but it is also used more broadly to refer to any similar format dining. This is referred to more formally as small plates, but tapas is common. Such dishes are traditionally common in many parts of the world, and have become increasingly popular in the English-speaking world since about 2000, particularly under the influence of Spanish tapas.

- North America and the United Kingdom: Upmarket tapas restaurants and tapas bars are common in many cities of the United States, Mexico, Canada, Ireland and the United Kingdom. As with any cuisine exported from its original country, there can often be significant differences between the original Spanish dishes and the dishes as they are served abroad.


- Mexico: In Mexico, there are not many tapas bars. However, the "cantinas botaneras" come close to the Mexican version of a tapas bar, but they operate on a very different business model. The appetizers (botanas) keep coming as long as the patron keeps ordering beer, liquor or mixed drinks. The more the patron drinks, the more he or she eats. These establishments, some over a hundred years old, such as La Opera, are particularly popular around the Centro Historico in Mexico City, but there are similar cantinas farther out in Coyocan or even in somewhat nearby cities like Xalapa, Veracruz.

- Argentina: Picada is a type of tapas eaten in Argentina, usually involving only cold dishes, such as olives, ham, salami and different types of cheese.


- Brazil: Tira-gostos (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiɾɐ ˈɡostʊs]) or petiscos ([peˈt͡ʃiskʊs]) are served in the bars of Brazil and typical as tapas-like side dishes to accompany beer or other alcoholic drinks. The better bars tend to have a greater variety, and rarer, more traditional, dishes (using, for example, lamb or goat meat, which are relatively uncommon in the diet of urbanites in southern Brazil).

People from the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro, which had the most Portuguese and the second-most Spanish immigration in Brazil, are among those who are most proud of their bar culture as a symbol of the city's nightlife, but bars that serve a variety of tapas-like side dishes are common in all state capitals and cities with more than 700,000 inhabitants.

Many tapas typical of Spanish cuisine that are rarer dishes in Portugal are more easily found in Brazil, due to the presence of the cultural heritage of the Spanish Brazilians as a result of immigration.


- Venetian cicchetti: Cicchetti are small tapas-like dishes served in cicchetti bars in Venice, Italy. Venetians typically eat cicchetti for lunch or as late-afternoon snacks.

- Asia: In Korea, drinking establishments often serve anju (안주) of various types, including meat, seafood, and vegetables. In Japan, izakaya are drinking establishments that serve accompaniments similar to tapas. In the Philippines, the term tapa has come to refer to a traditional dish of salt-cured beef served at breakfast.

Sources consulted:
- www.westbridgfordwire.com
- www.frusheronfood.co.uk
- www.eatmidlands.com
- www.thenottinghambucketlist.com
- www.thefoodface.wordpress.com
- www.wikipedia.org

City of Nottingham in England - Robin Hood Legend

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CITY OF NOTTINGHAM IN ENGLAND

Nottingham is a city in Nottinghamshire, England, 30 miles (48 km) south of Sheffield and 30 miles (48 km) north of Leicester.


Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle (notably Raleigh bikes) and tobacco industries. It was granted its city charter in 1897 as part of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination; in 2011, visitors spent over £1.5 billion - the sixth highest amount in England.


In 2013, Nottingham had an estimated population of 310,837 with the wider urban area, which includes many of the city's suburbs, having a population of 729,977. Its urban area is the largest in the East Midlands and the second largest in the Midlands. The population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,543,000. Its metropolitan economy is the seventh largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50.9bn (2014). The city is also ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.


Nottingham has an award-winning public transport system, including the largest publicly owned bus network in England and is also served by Nottingham railway station and the modern Nottingham Express Transit tram system.


It is also a major sporting centre, and in October 2015 was named 'Home of English Sport'. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UK's first City of Football.


HISTORY

In Anglo-Saxon times the area was part of the Kingdom of Mercia, and was known in the Brythonic language as Tigguo Cobauc, meaning Place of Caves. In Welsh it is known poetically as Y Ty Ogofog and Irish Gaelic as Na Tithe Uaimh "The Cavey Dwelling". When it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as "Snotingaham"; the homestead of Snot's people (Inga = the people of; Ham = homestead). Some authors derive "Nottingham" from Snottenga, caves, and ham, but "this has nothing to do with the English form".


Nottingham Castle was constructed in the 11th century on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. The Anglo-Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall and Law Courts. A settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later.


On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the Castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John, including the Sheriff of Nottingham. It was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the final showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw.


By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of a thriving export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham Alabaster. The town became a county corporate in 1449 giving it effective self-government, in the words of the charter, "for eternity". The Castle and Shire Hall were expressly excluded and remained as detached Parishes of Nottinghamshire.


One of those highly impressed by Nottingham in the late 18th century was the German traveller C. P. Moritz, who wrote in 1782, "Of all the towns I have seen outside London, Nottingham is the loveliest and neatest. Everything had a modern look, and a large space in the centre was hardly less handsome than a London square. A charming footpath leads over the fields to the highway, where a bridge spans the Trent.... Nottingham... with its high houses, red roofs and church steeples, looks excellent from a distance."


During the Industrial Revolution, much of Nottingham's prosperity was founded on the textile industry; in particular, the city became an internationally important centre of lace manufacture. In 1831 citizens rioted in protest against the Duke of Newcastle's opposition to the Reform Act 1832, setting fire to his residence, Nottingham Castle.


In common with the UK textile industry, Nottingham's textile sector fell into decline in the decades following World War II. Little textile manufacture now takes place in Nottingham, however, many of the former industrial buildings in the Lace Market district have been restored and put to new uses.


Nottingham was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and at that time consisted of the parishes of St Mary, St Nicholas and St Peter. It was expanded in 1877 by adding the parishes of Basford, Brewhouse Yard, Bulwell, Radford, Sneinton, Standard Hill and parts of the parishes of West Bridgford, Carlton, Wilford (North Wilford). In 1889 Nottingham became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888.


City status was awarded as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of Queen Victoria, being signified in a letter from the prime minister, the Marquess of Salisbury to the mayor, dated 18 June 1897. Nottingham was extended in 1933 by adding Bilborough and Wollaton, parts of the parishes of Bestwood Park and Colwick, and a recently developed part of the Beeston Urban District. A further boundary extension was granted in 1951 when Clifton and Wilford (south of the River Trent) were incorporated into the city.


Electric trams were introduced to the city in 1901; they served the city for 35 years until the trolleybus network was expanded in 1936. Trams were reintroduced after 68 years when a new network opened in 2004.


In the sporting world, Nottingham is home to the world's oldest professional football club, Notts County, which was formed in 1862. The town's other football club, Nottingham Forest, (under manager Brian Clough) had a period of success between 1977 and 1993; winning the First Division, four League Cups, a UEFA Super Cup and two European Cups. During this time Forest signed Trevor Francis, Britain's first £1million footballer, who joined the club in February 1979 from Birmingham City.


The city was the site of race riots in 1958, centred on the St Ann's neighbourhood.


During the second half of the 20th century Nottingham saw urban growth with the development of new public and private housing estates and new urban centres, which have engulfed former rural villages such as Bilborough, Wollaton, Gedling and Bramcote. South of the river there has also been expansion with new areas such as Edwalton and West Bridgford, adding to Nottingham's urban sprawl. Although this growth slowed towards the end of the century, the modern pressures for more affordable and council housing is back on the political agenda and there is now pressure on the Green Belt which surrounds the city.


GORENMENT

- Local government: Nottingham City Council is a unitary authority based at Nottingham Council House in Old Market Square. It consists of 55 councillors, representing 20 wards, who are elected every four years; the last elections being held on 5 May 2011.


The city also has ceremonial Lord Mayor who is selected by city councillors from among themselves. The position is ceremonial and has no formal power or authority.


The City of Nottingham's boundaries are tightly drawn and exclude several suburbs and satellite towns that are usually considered part of Greater Nottingham. The western suburbs of Beeston, Stapleford and Eastwood are administered by Broxtowe borough council. Further west still, the Nottingham urban district extends into Derbyshire where Ilkeston and Long Eaton are administered by Erewash borough council, and Ripley by Amber Valley.


To the north, Hucknall is controlled by Ashfield district council, while in the east Arnold and Carlton form part of the borough of Gedling. South of the river, the suburb of West Bridgford lies in Rushcliffe, as do the outlying villages of Ruddington and Tollerton and the town of Bingham. In December 2011, Rushcliffe, was named one of the 20 most desirable places to live in the UK by the Halifax Building Society. It was one of only four places outside the south of the country to appear in the top 50.


- UK Parliament: Nottingham has three UK parliamentary constituency seats within its boundaries. Nottingham North has been represented since 1987 by Labour MP Graham Allen, Nottingham East since 2010 by Labour MP Chris Leslie and Nottingham South since 2010 by Labour MP Lilian Greenwood.


- European Parliament: Nottingham lies within the East Midlands European parliamentary constituency. In 2014, it elected five MEPs: Margot Parker (UKIP), Roger Helmer (UKIP), Andrew Lewer (Conservative), Emma McClarkin (Conservative) and Glenis Willmott (Labour).


- Other: Emergency services are provided by Nottinghamshire Police, Nottinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service and East Midlands Ambulance Service.


CLIMATE

There are weather reporting stations close to Nottingham – the former "Nottingham Weather Centre", at Watnall, about 6 miles (10 km) north-west of the city centre; and the University of Nottingham's agricultural campus at Sutton Bonington, about 10 miles (16 km) to the south-west of the city centre. The highest temperature recorded in Nottingham (Watnall) stands at 34.6 °C (94.3 °F), whilst at Sutton Bonington stands at 34.8 °C (94.6 °F) both recorded on the 3rd of August 1990, and the record high minimum temperature is 19.9 °C (67.8 °F) recorded in August 2004. On average, a temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) or above is recorded on 11.0 days per year at Watnall (1981–2010), and the warmest day of the year reaches an average of 29.4 °C (84.9 °F).


For the period 1981–2010 Nottingham (Watnall) recorded on average 42.9 days of air frost per year, and Sutton Bonington 47.1. The lowest recorded temperature in Nottingham (Watnall) is −13.3 °C (8.1 °F) recorded in January 1963 and January 1987. The record low maximum temperature is −6.3 °C (20.7 °F) recorded in January 1963. For the period of 1981-2010, the coldest temperature of the year reaches an average of −6.6 °C (20.1 °F) in Nottingham (Watnall).


ARCHITECTURE

The geographical centre of Nottingham is usually defined as the Old Market Square, the largest city square in the UK. The square is dominated by the Council House, which replaced The Nottingham Exchange Building, built in 1726. The Council House was built in the 1920s to display civic pride, ostentatiously using baroque columns and placing stone statues of two lions at the front to stand watch over the square. The Exchange Arcade, on the ground floor, is an upmarket shopping centre containing boutiques.


Tall office buildings line Maid Marian Way. The Georgian area around Oxford and Regent Streets is dominated by small professional firms. The Albert Hall faces the Gothic revival St Barnabas' Roman Catholic Cathedral by Pugin. Nottingham Castle and its grounds are located further south in the western third of the city. The central third descends from the University district in the north, past Nottingham Trent University's Gothic revival Arkwright Building. The University also owns many other buildings in this area. The Theatre Royal on Theatre Square, with its pillared façade, was built in 1865. King and Queen Streets are home to striking Victorian buildings designed by such architects as Alfred Waterhouse and Watson Fothergill.


To the south, is Broadmarsh Shopping Centre. The Canal-side further south of this is adjacent to Nottingham railway station and home to numerous redeveloped 19th-century industrial buildings, reused as bars and restaurants.


The eastern third of the city centre contains the Victoria Shopping Centre, built in the 1970s on the site of the demolished Victoria Railway Station. All that remains of the old station is the clock tower and the station hotel, now the Nottingham Hilton Hotel. The 250 feet-high Victoria Centre flats stand above the shopping centre and are the tallest buildings in the city. The eastern third contains Hockley Village. Hockley is where many of Nottingham's unique, independent shops are to be found. It is also home to two alternative cinemas.


- Lace Market: The Lace Market area just south of Hockley has streets with four to seven-story red brick warehouses, iron railings and red phone boxes.


Buildings have been converted into apartments, bars and restaurants. Adams Building, built by Thomas Chambers Hine for Thomas Adams (1817–1873), is currently used by New College Nottingham. St. Mary's Church, on High Pavement, is the largest medieval building still standing in Nottingham. The Georgian-built Shire Hall is home to the Galleries of Justice and was Nottingham's main court and prison building.


- Pubs: Ye Olde Trip To Jerusalem (the Trip), partially built into the cave system beneath Nottingham Castle, is a contender for the title of England's Oldest Pub, as it is supposed to have been established in 1189. The Bell Inn in the Old Market Square, and Ye Olde Salutation Inn (the Salutation) in Maid Marian Way have both disputed this claim. The Trip's current timber building probably dates back to the 17th or 18th century, but the caves are certainly older and may have been used to store beer and water for the castle during medieval times. There are also caves beneath the Salutation that date back to the medieval period, although they are no longer used as beer cellars. The Bell Inn is probably the oldest of the three pub buildings still standing, according to dendrochronology, and has medieval cellars that are still used to store beer.


EDUCATION

Over 61,000 students attend the city's two universities, Nottingham Trent University and the University of Nottingham, both of which have several campuses in the city. In 2011/12, Nottingham Trent University had 27,930 students, and the University of Nottingham had 35,630. The University of Nottingham Medical School is part of the Queen's Medical Centre.


Three further education colleges are located in Nottingham. Bilborough College is solely a sixth form college. Central College was formed from the merger of South Nottingham College and Castle College. New College was formed from a merger of four smaller further education colleges. Nottingham also has dozens of sixth-form colleges and academies that provide education and training for adults aged over 16.


Nottingham also has a number of independent schools, with Nottingham High School – which was founded in 1513 – being the city's oldest educational establishment.


ECONOMY

In 2010, Nottingham City Council announced that as part of their economic development strategy for the city, their target sectors would include low-carbon technologies, digital media, life sciences, financial and business services and retail and leisure.


Nottingham is home to the headquarters of several companies. One is Boots the Chemists (now Alliance Boots). Other large companies include Chinook Sciences, GM (cricket bats), Pedigree pet food company, American clothing VF Cooperation, Chinese-made automobiles Changan, the credit reference agency Experian, the energy company E.ON UK, the tobacco company Imperial Tobacco, the betting company Gala Group, the amusement and gambling-machine manufacturer Bell-Fruit-Games, the engineering company Siemens, the sportswear manufacturers Speedo, the high-street opticians Vision Express and Specsavers, the games and publishing company Games Workshop, the PC software developer Serif Europe (publisher of PagePlus and other titles), the Web hosting provider Heart Internet, the American credit card company Capital One, and the national law firm Browne Jacobson. Nottingham is also the home of the Nottingham Building Society (set up in 1849), the offices of HM Revenue and Customs, the Driving Standards Agency, BBC East Midlands offices, and formerly, the Government Office for the East Midlands.


Nottingham was made one of the UK's six science cities in 2005 by the then chancellor of the Exchequer (later prime minister), Gordon Brown. Among the science based industries within the city is BioCity. Founded as a joint venture between Nottingham Trent University and the University of Nottingham, it is the UK's biggest bioscience innovation and incubation centre, housing around 80 science-based companies.


Until recently cycle manufacturing was a major industry, the city being the birthplace of Raleigh Cycles in 1886, later joined by Sturmey-Archer, the developer of three-speed hub gears. However, Raleigh's factory on Triumph Road, famous as the location for the filming of Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, was demolished in Summer 2003 to make way for the University of Nottingham's expansion of its Jubilee Campus. The schools and aerial photographers, H Tempest Ltd were Nottingham-based for many years, until relocating to St. Ives (Cornwall) around 1960.


Nottingham is also host to the UK's first and only local authority-owned and not-for-profit energy company; Robin Hood Energy.


In 2015, Nottingham was also ranked as being in the top 10 UK cities for job growth (2004–13), in the public and private sectors.


- Shopping: In 2014, Nottingham came seventh in CACI's Retail Footprint rankings of retail expenditure in the UK, behind the West End of London, Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool. This is a slip of four places since 2010, primarily due to major developments in other parts of the UK and a relative lack of investment in Nottingham. However, this is likely to change as the owners of the two main shopping centres, Intu, have plans to upgrade and extend them both.


There are two main shopping centres in Nottingham: the Victoria Centre and the Broadmarsh Centre. The Victoria Centre was established on the site of the former Nottingham Victoria railway station, and was the first to be built in the city, with parking for up to 2,400 cars on several levels, and a bus station.


Nottingham City Council, owners of the Broadmarsh Centre, have been attempting to redevelop it for "almost two decades". Work on redeveloping Broadmarsh, at a cost of £400 million (creating 400 stores, 136,000 m2 of shopping space), was due to start in 2008.


However, the downturn in the economy meant that redevelopment was delayed throughout from 2008 to 2010. In the light of the Victoria Centre's redevelopment plans, Westfield announced in 2011 that it was once again planning a £500 million development of Broadmarsh, which would start in 2012. This, however, did not take place either.


Broadmarsh was finally sold to Capital Shopping Centres, the owners of the Victoria Centre. The purchase prompted an investigation by the Office of Fair Trading and the Competition Commission, who were concerned that the company's monopoly over the city's shopping centres could have a negative impact on competition.


CSC subsequently rebranded itself and the centres use the "Intu" name. Although the new owners wished to start the planned development of the Victoria Centre, Nottingham City Council insisted that Broadmarsh must have priority, with the Council offering £50 million towards its redevelopment. The deputy leader of Nottingham City Council said the Council would withhold planning permission for the development of the Victoria Centre until they saw "bulldozers going into the Broadmarsh Centre."


Smaller shopping centres in the city are The Exchange Arcade, the Flying Horse Walk and newer developments in Trinity Square and The Pod. The Bridlesmith Gate area has numerous designer shops, and is the home of the original Paul Smith boutique. There are various side streets and alleys that hide some interesting and often overlooked buildings and shops – such as Poultry Walk, West End Arcade and Hurts Yard. These are home to many specialist shops, as is Derby Road, near the Roman Catholic Cathedral and once the antiques area.


Nottingham has a number of department stores including the House of Fraser, John Lewis, and Debenhams.


- Enterprise zone: In March 2011 the government announced the creation of Nottingham Enterprise Zone, an enterprise zone sited on part of the Boots Estate. In March 2012 Nottingham Science Park, Beeston Business Park and Nottingham Medipark were added to the zone. In December 2014 the government announced that the zone would be expanded again, to include Infinity Park Derby, a planned business park for aerospace, rail and automotive technology adjacent to the Rolls-Royce site in Sinfin, Derby.


- Creative Quarter: The Creative Quarter is a project started by Nottingham City Council as part of the Nottingham City Deal. Centred on the east of the city (including the Lace Market, Hockley, Broadmarsh East, the Island site and BioCity), the project aims at creating growth and jobs. In July 2012, the government contributed £25 million towards a £45 million venture capital fund, mainly targeted at the Creative Quarter.


CULTURE

- Theatres: Nottingham has two large-capacity theatres, the Nottingham Playhouse and the Theatre Royal, which together with the neighbouring Royal Concert Hall forms the Royal Centre. The city also contains smaller theatre venues such as the Nottingham Arts Theatre, the Lace Market Theatre and New Theatre.


- Galleries and museums: The city contains several notable museums and art galleries including:
- The Galleries of Justice: Museum of Law Trust based at the Shire Hall in the Lace Market
- Green's Windmill and Science Centre: A unique working windmill in the heart of the city that was home to the 19th-century mathematical physicist and miller, George Green.
- Nottingham Castle Museum: Home to the city's fine and decorative art collections, along with the Story of Nottingham galleries, and the Sherwood Foresters


- Regimental Museum.
- Nottingham Contemporary: Contemporary art gallery, which opened in 2009.
- Nottingham Industrial Museum: In Wollaton Park.
- Nottingham Natural History Museum: Based at Wollaton Hall.


- Cinemas: There is a Cineworld and a Showcase in the city. Independent cinemas include the Broadway Cinema, Savoy Cinema, (a four-screen Art Deco cinema), as well an Arthouse cinema in Hockley.


- Music and entertainment: Nottingham has several large music and entertainment venues including the Royal Concert Hall, Rock City and the Nottingham Arena


The 2,500-capacity Nottingham Royal Concert Hall and 10,000-capacity Nottingham Arena attract popular music and comedy artistes. Nottingham also has a selection of smaller venues, including the 800-capacity Albert Hall, Ye Olde Salutation Inn, Seven (formerly Junktion 7) and The Old Angel. Nottingham contains the rock music venue Rock City. Nottingham's City Ground played host to rock band R.E.M. in 2005, the first time a concert had been staged at the football stadium. Bottles were thrown hitting peoples' heads in the crowd.


The city has an active classical music scene, with long-established ensembles such as the city's Symphony Orchestra, Philharmonic Orchestra, Nottingham Harmonic Society, Bach Choir, Early Music Group Musica Donum Dei and the Symphonic Wind Orchestra giving regular performances in the city.


The Sumac Centre, based in Forest Fields, has for many years supported local upcoming musicians, artists and film makers, and a variety of campaign groups. There are a large number of live music venues promoting rock and metal music throughout the city, including The Central, The Old Angel, The Maze, The Chameleon, The Corner and Ye Olde Salutation Inn. Sixties Blues-rock band Ten Years After formed in Nottingham, as did the 70s pop act Paper Lace. Since the turn of the decade the city has produced a number of artists to gain media attention, including; Jake Bugg, London Grammar, Indiana, Sleaford Mods, Natalie Duncan, Dog Is Dead, Saint Raymond, Rue Royale and Amber Run.


Wollaton Park in Nottingham hosts an annual family-friendly music event called Splendour. In 2009 it was headlined by Madness and The Pogues. The following year it was headlined by The Pet Shop Boys and featured, among others, Calvin Harris, Noisettes, Athlete and OK Go. In 2011 it featured headline acts Scissor Sisters, Blondie, Eliza Doolittle and Feeder. In 2012, performers included Dizzee Rascal, Razorlight, Katy B, and Hard-Fi.


Nottingham is known for hip hop. Rofl Audio Recording Studios opened in 2013.


- Arts and crafts: The Hockley Arts Market runs alongside Sneinton Market.


- Food: There are several hundred restaurants in Nottingham, with there being several AA rosette winning restaurants in 2010. Iberico World Tapas, situation in the city centre, was awarded a Bib Gourmand in the 2013 Michelin Guide.


- Tourism: In 2010, the city was named as one of the "Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2010" by DK Travel. In 2013 it was estimated the city received 247,000 overseas visitors.

There is a Robin Hood Pageant in Nottingham in October. The city is home to the Nottingham Robin Hood Society, founded in 1972 by Jim Lees and Steve and Ewa Theresa West.


In February 2008, a Ferris wheel was put up in the Old Market Square and was an attraction of Nottingham City Council's "Light Night" on 8 February. The wheel returned to Nottingham in February 2009 to mark another night of lights, activities, illuminations and entertainment. Initially marketed as the Nottingham Eye, it was later redubbed as the Nottingham Wheel, to avoid any association with the London Eye. It was seen again in 2010 and 2015.


- People: Many local businesses and organisations use the worldwide fame of Robin Hood to represent or promote their brands. Many residents converse in the East Midlands dialect. The friendly term of greeting "Eh-oop, me Duck" is a humorous example of the local dialect, but with an unclear origin.


- Miscellaneous: Nottingham is home to the GameCity annual videogame festival, which attracts leading industry speakers from around the world. In addition, in 2015 the National Videogame Arcade was opened in the Hockley area of the city; being "the UK's first cultural centre for videogames".

In 2013, Nottingham was named the most haunted city in England, reflecting its historical past.

Nottingham has hosted an annual Asian Mela in every summer since about 1989. Nottingham also hosts a parade on St Patrick's Day, Fireworks at the Chinese New Year, Holi in the Park celebrating Hinduism, a West Indian-style Carnival, and several Sikh events.

Nottingham has featured in a number of fictional works.



- Sport: Nottingham is home to two professional football clubs: Notts County and Nottingham Forest. Their two football grounds, on opposite sides of the River Trent, are noted for geographically being the closest in English league football. Notts County, formed in 1862, is the oldest professional football club in the world.

They were also among the Football League's founder members in 1888. For most of their history they have played their home games at Meadow Lane, which currently holds some 20,000 spectators, all seated. They currently play in Football League One – the third tier of English league football – and most recently played top division football in May 1992.


Nottingham Forest, who currently play in the Football League Championship, were English league champions in 1978 and won the European Cup twice over the next two seasons under the management of Brian Clough, who was the club's manager from January 1975 to May 1993, leading them to four Football League Cup triumphs in that time. They have played at the City Ground, on the south bank of the River Trent, since 1898.


Nottingham Forest joined the Football League in 1892, four years after its inception when it merged with the rival Football Alliance, and 100 years later, they were among the FA Premier League's founder members in 1992 – though they have not played top division football since May 1999. The City Ground played host to group stage games in the 1996 European Football Championships.


Nottingham won the title of 2015 City of Football after five months of campaigning, which resulted in £1.6m in funding for local football ventures and to encourage more people to play the sport. Nottingham was selected to be a host city for the England 2018 FIFA World Cup bid. It was proposed that if the bid were successful, the city would have received a new Nottingham Forest Stadium.


Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club play at Trent Bridge – an international cricket venue. The club were 2010 Cricket County Champions. Trent Bridge cricket ground is a host of Test Cricket, and was one of the venues for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20.


The Rugby team, Nottingham R.F.C., have played their home games at League One, Notts County's Meadow Lane stadium since 2006. In January 2015 they will play home matches at their training base, Lady Bay Sports Ground. Currently in the RFU Championship, if Nottingham are promoted to the Rugby Premiership they will return to Meadow Lane for home matches. Nottingham Outlaws are an amateur Rugby League club who play in the Rugby League Conference National Division.


The city was the birthplace and training location for ice dancers Torvill and Dean, who won Gold at the 1984 Sarajevo Olympics. The National Ice Centre, opened by Jane Torvill, is a national centre for ice sports. The square in-front of the centre is named "Bolero Square" after Torvill and Dean's perfect 6.0 performance. Nottingham is home to the Nottingham Panthers ice hockey team.


Other sporting events in the city include the annual tennis Aegon Trophy (which is staged at the City of Nottingham Tennis Centre), the Robin Hood Marathon, Milk Race, the Great Nottinghamshire Bike Ride and the Outlaw Triathlon. Nottingham also has three Roller derby teams: Nottingham Roller Girls, the Hellfire Harlots (women's teams).


RELIGION

The traditional requirement of city status is a (Church of England) cathedral. Nottingham, however, does not have one, having only been designated a city in 1897, in celebration of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. From around AD 1100 Nottingham was part of the Diocese of Lichfield, controlled as an archdeaconry from Lichfield Cathedral in Staffordshire. However, in 1837 the archdeaconry was placed under the control of the Diocese of Lincoln. In 1884 it became part of the newly created Diocese of Southwell, which it, and the city, are still part of today. The bishop is based at Southwell Minster, 14 miles (23 km) north-east of the city. In 2005 the diocese was renamed the Diocese of Southwell and Nottingham.


Despite not having a cathedral, Nottingham has three notable historic Anglican parish churches, all of which date back to the Middle Ages. St. Mary the Virgin, in the Lace Market, is the oldest and largest. The church dates from the eighth or ninth centuries, but the present building is at least the third on the site, dating primarily from 1377 to 1485. St. Mary's is considered the mother church of the city and civic services are held here, including the welcome to the new Lord Mayor of Nottingham each year. It is a member of the Greater Churches Group. St. Peter's in the heart of the city is the oldest building in continuous use in Nottingham, with traces of building starting in 1180. St. Nicholas' was rebuilt after destruction in the Civil War.


A variety of chapels and meeting rooms are in the town. Many of these grand buildings have been demolished, including Halifax Place Wesleyan Chapel, but some have been re-used, notably High Pavement Chapel which is now a public house. The national headquarters of the Congregational Federation is in Nottingham.



Nottingham is one of 18 British cities that do not have an Anglican cathedral. It is, however, home to the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Barnabas, which was designed by Augustus Pugin and consecrated in 1844. It is the cathedral church for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Nottingham.


Today there are places of worship for all major religions, including Christianity, Islam with 32 Mosques in Nottingham, Hinduism, Sikhism, Taoism and Judaism. The Nottingham Inter-faith Council works to make connections between faith groups and show the wider public the importance of spiritual aspects of life and the contribution faith groups make to the community.

Nottingham has 30,000 Muslims, 15,000 Sikhs, 8,000 Hindus and 2,000 Jews.


DEMOGRAPHY

The city of Nottingham has a population at 312,900 with the Greater Nottingham population at 729,977 and the Metro population at 1,543,000. The city of Nottingham has a density of 4,073/km2.


65.4% are White British, 6.1% are European/North American, 13.1% Asian, 4.3% African, 1.6% Middle Eastern, 1.1% South/Central American and 8.2% of West Indian origins. Nottingham is a very multi-cultural city with people from 93 different countries and 101 spoken languages with cuisines, religious institutions/places of worship, businesses and supermarkets all over Nottingham especially situated in Hyson Green, Forest Fields, Carrington, Radford, Lenton, Meadows, Dunkirk, Rylands, St Ann's, Sneinton, Aspley, Broxtowe, City, Basford, Bakersfield, Carlton and Arnold.


MEDIA

- Television Main articles: BBC East Midlands and Carlton Studios, Nottingham

The BBC has its East Midlands headquarters in Nottingham on London Road. BBC East Midlands Today is broadcast from the city every weeknight at 18:30.


From 1983-2005 Central Television (the ITV region for the East Midlands) had a studio complex on Lenton Lane, producing programmes for various networks and broadcasting regional news. Although a petition was set up to try to stop it, the TV studios were shut down in early 2005 with local news production transferred to Birmingham.


The city was recently granted permission by OFCOM to set up its own local television station. After a tender process, Confetti College was awarded the license. The station was declared open by Prince Harry in April 2013 and Notts TV began broadcast in spring 2014.


- Radio: In addition to the national commercial and BBC radio stations, the Nottingham area is served by four licensed commercial radio stations (though all broadcast to a wider area than the city), three community radio stations, one student station broadcasting on a Low powered AM Restricted Service Licence and a BBC local radio station.


Radio stations include: BBC Radio Nottingham; Gold; Gem 106; Capital East Midlands


- Student Radio: The city's two universities both broadcast their own student radio stations. Nottingham Trent University's FlyFM is based at the university's city campus and is broadcast online. Nottingham University's University Radio Nottingham is broadcast around the main and Sutton Bonnington campuses on medium wave (AM), as well as over the internet. New College Nottingham also broadcast an online radio station, NCN RADIO.


- Community radio: There are also three community radio stations serving the city. Faza FM on 97.1FM, has been broadcasting since 2002 and is aimed at Asian women and their families. Dawn FM on 107.6FM used to share its broadcast hours with Faza, but in 2006 became a separate service in its own right – broadcasting news, current affairs and music of relevance to the Asian (specifically Islamic) community within the city. Kemet Radio on 97.5, launched in 2007 and broadcasts urban music while also serving the Afro-Caribbean community.


- Newspapers and magazines: Nottingham's main local newspaper, the Nottingham Post, is owned by Northcliffe Media and is published daily from Monday to Saturday each week. There are also a number of other publications which focus on individual areas within the city, for instance the Hucknall and Bulwell Dispatch.


A local culture and listings magazine called LeftLion is available free from many sites around the city, whilst a complimentary, bi-monthly glossy magazine is also available from a number of outlets across the city called Life&Style Magazine. This consists of features typically focused on the area's interest in fashion, entertainment and politics. Arrow magazine features a range of local news, events and information on Nottingham City Council services.


Nottingham Trent University's Student Union produces the regular Platform Magazine, while Impact Magazine is a monthly magazine written for, and by, students at the University of Nottingham.



Student tabloid, The Tab also publishes online content and has teams at both universities.


- Film: Nottingham has been used as a location in many locally, nationally, and internationally produced films. Movies that have been filmed (partly or entirely) in Nottingham.


ROBIN HOOD

Robin Hood is a heroic outlaw in English folklore who, according to legend, was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. Traditionally depicted as being dressed in Lincoln green, he is often portrayed as "robbing from the rich and giving to the poor" alongside his band of Merry Men. Robin Hood became a popular folk figure in the late-medieval period, and continues to be widely represented in literature, films and television.


- Historicity: The historicity of Robin Hood has been debated for centuries. Modern academic opinion maintains that the legend is based in part on a historical person, although there is considerable scholarly debate as to his actual identity. A difficulty with any such historical research is that "Robert" was in medieval England a very common given name, and "Robin" (or Robyn), was its very common diminutive, especially in the 13th century. The surname "Hood" (or Hude or Hode etc.) was also fairly common because it referred either to a Hooder, who was a maker of hoods; or alternatively to somebody who wore a hood as a head-covering. Unsurprisingly, therefore, reference is made to a number of people called "Robert Hood" or "Robin Hood" in medieval records. Some of these individuals are even known to have fallen afoul of the law.


- Sherwood Forest: The early ballads link Robin Hood to identifiable real places. In popular culture, Robin Hood and his band of "merry men" are portrayed as living in Sherwood Forest, in Nottinghamshire. Notably, the Lincoln Cathedral Manuscript, which is the first officially recorded Robin Hood song (dating from approximately 1420), makes an explicit reference to the outlaw that states that "Robyn hode in scherewode stod." In a similar fashion, a monk of Witham Priory (1460) suggested that the archer had 'infested shirwode'. His chronicle entry reads:


'Around this time, according to popular opinion, a certain outlaw named Robin Hood, with his accomplices, infested Sherwood and other law-abiding areas of England with continuous robberies'.


Nobody knows exactly what the monk's source was, but the fact that he used the term 'according to popular opinion' has led historians to conclude that his source may have been nothing more than simple word of mouth.

Mumbles Fine Wines - Tasting with Pedro Urbina

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MUMBLES FINE WINES IN SWANSEA (SOUTH WALES)

Established in 2006, Mumbles Fine Wines is an independent and popular Swansea wine merchant situated in the heart of Mumbles (South Wales), on 524 Mumbles Road. They aim to be different from and better than other wine merchants, and they achieve that by being the best IWC Regional Wine Merchant of the Year for Wales 2011, 2013, 2014, 2013 and 2015

They have wansea's largest selection of wines, with have a huge range of quality wines that is stocked for all tastes and budgets (Their wines range from £3.99 to £1495.00), from the ancient Chateaux of France, through to the new and exciting boutique wineries in the 'New World' such as South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc., and some of the most refined and great classic wines from Rioja in Spain. They also sell French, Spanish and Local Gourmet Foods, Books, Glassware and Wine Accessories. It's a unique place to shop where there is something for everyone.


Emphasis is always on quality, all wines have been selected by their experienced tasting team, which includes their especial in-house Wine and Food Consultant John Roberts. Because they have this team of passionate, enthusiastic, and knowledgeable staff working here, it makes this place ideal for asking about wine recommendations, whether it is a special occasion or just a quiet night in, they will have the right wine for you.

They have a Chateau in the Medoc, Chateau Rousseau de Sipian, itself producing award winning wines, that has enabled them to source many unusual and individual wines from France and over the last few years they have broadened their search and imported some truly exceptional wines from Australia and New Zealand. They simply strive to find the world's best wines at the best prices for their customers.


Their wines are complemented by a superb range of French, Spanish and Welsh foods, which are also to be found within the selection of specialist Hampers, a truly perfect gift all year round.

Wine Enthusiasts will further appreciate the extensive wine giftware and they stock many premium ranges of Crystal ware, silver plated wine accessories and all sorts of corkscrews and wine gadgets.

Their passion for wine is further reflected in the W.S.E.T. (Wine & Spirit Education Trust) courses they hold at the shop and in their very popular Wine Club, which enables their customers to taste many of the wines prior to purchase. Come and see for yourself - free tastings every Saturday.


- Name: Mumbles Fine Wines
- Manager: Jon Moore
- Wine Consultant: John Roberts
- IWC Regional Merchant of the Year for Wales: 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012 and 2011
- Company Type: Retailer. An independent wine merchant with it's own Medoc Chateau.
- Address: 524 Mumbles Rd, Swansea, West Glamorgan SA3 4DH, South Wales
- Phone: +44 1792 367663
- Website: www.mumblesfinewines.co.uk


WINE CLUB

Their very popular Wine Club has now been running for a number of years. If you are a complete novice or even an 'expert' within the realms of wine, then this club is for you. The Members have a range of knowledge, from very little to years of experience which make for a good balance.

Mumbles Fine Wines want every member to enjoy themselves when they come to a meeting. After all, drinking wine should be an enjoyment, and what better way to end a busy day than to transport yourself to vineyards across the world.


The 'Wine Club' takes place in the surroundings of the Mumbles Fine Wines store in Mumbles. The surroundings are comfortable and everyone is very friendly.

The 'Wine Club' evenings are led by their own Wine Consultant, John Roberts, with over 37 years experience in the wine industry, will take you through a 'Tutored Tasting', showing you how to get the most out of your wine experience. From the smell of the wine and the tasting technique to matching the wines with specific foods. John will take you through it step by step.


The Wine Club Format:

Every Member receives a file at the start of their membership. This is then updated by the member as the year progresses. Most Wine Club tasting events involve the tasting of up to 8 different wines, with various themes, e.g. Old World versus New World, Alternatives etc.

You will then take part in a structured tasting of the wines: White before red; Dry white before Sweet white; and then light red before full bodied etc.


During this time you are invited to make your own tasting notes (should you wish to) and observations about the wines that you are tasting.

After the structured tasting is finished there is an opportunity to retry wines tasted earlier, and to ask any questions that you may have.


Members Benefits:

- Invitations to Bi-monthly, wine tastings at Mumbles Fine Wines in Mumbles. With a choice of weekend and weekday evening times.
- Complimentary canapés at tasting events.
- 'Member only' Discounts on wines tasted at the tasting events.
- Membership card allowing 10% discount of all goods instore (excluding offers).
- Exclusive 'Members Only' Credit Account facility.
- Opportunity to join an annual members-only dinner with complimentary wines.
- 'Member Only' discounts on Guided Wine Tours to the Bordeaux Region of France.
- 10% Discount on W.S.E.T. (Wine & Spirit Education Trust) courses held at Mumbles Fine Wines.


Wine is an industry where you are learning all the time: New techniques; New tastes; New smells. There are so many different wines in the world, and to much fun in exploring and tasting them.

If you haven't got a clue about wine, then this is an ideal opportunity to come along and learn something. Then you can go away and impress your friends.


If you are an experienced wine connoisseur, then come along and explore different wines that you may not have come across before.

The 'Wine Club' at Mumbles Fine Wines has something for everyone whatever level of wine knowledge you have.


Membership of the 'Wine Club' is just £35 per year.

Gift Certificates are available.

For more information contact the shop on: 01792 367663


WINE COURSES (WSET QUALIFICATIONS)

Mr Roberts is a Wine and Spirit Education Trust approved tutor, with more than 37 years experience in the industry. Those that complete the sessions take a test at the end to gain a WSET qualification.

An Introduction to WSET Qualifications: Through its WSET Awards division, the Wine & Spirit Education Trust develops and manages vocational qualifications for the Wine & Spirit and related industries.

The WSET is the only wine & spirit education organization approved by the UK government as a national awarding body of vocational qualifications. The WSET qualifications provide underpinning knowledge which can be applied in a number of different job functions.


Mumbles Fine Wines have been focusing over the years on the continuous improvement and high standing of our core awards:

- John Roberts - W.S.E.T. Approved Tutor: John is the Wine Consultant at Mumbles Fine Wines. He is also an approved W.S.E.T. tutor and has over 37 years experience in the wine industry.

- W.S.E.T. Courses are held at Mumbles Fine Wines: The surroundings are comfortable and students feel at ease.

- WSET Schools Level 1 Intermediate Certificate Course: This wine and spirits qualification offers broad coverage of all product categories in the field of wines and spirits, together with basic wine tasting technique. It underpins job skills and competencies in the customer service and sales functions of the hospitality, retail and wholesale industries.

- WSET Schools Level 2 Intermediate Certificate Course: Is intended as vocational training in product knowledge for those employed in the drinks industry who have little previous knowledge of the broad range of alcoholic beverages available. The qualification is suitable wherever a good level of product knowledge is required to underpin job skills and competencies.


The course is also appropriate for those not employed in the drinks industry but who have a serious interest in wine, and wish to broaden their knowledge in a structured way. Intermediate Certificate covers the wines and spirits of the world in eight two-hour sessions, followed by a one-hour multiple choice examination on the ninth session. Wine tasting is a part of every class.

This qualification has full accreditation from the UK Government's Qualifications & Curriculum Authority as a Level 2 Vocational Qualification.

WSET School recommends that students complete at least 14 hours of personal study outside the classroom hours during their course of study. For those attending a consecutive day course it is essential that this study takes place prior to commencing the course. It is strongly recommended that anyone wishing to attend the consecutive day programme book in sufficient time to receive the study material a minimum of two weeks prior to commencement of the course.


Course Programme:
- Level 2 Systematic Approach to Tasting and food and wine matching
- Grape growing and wine making
- Chardonnay and Pinot Noir
- Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Sauvignon Blanc
- Syrah, Grenache and Riesling
- Italy, Spain and Portugal
- Sparkling and sweet wines
- Fortified wines and spirits and liqueurs


Participants are taken with the use of pictures and maps, to difernt wine regions of the world. And by tasting the wines they can experience and explore in first hand: The body, acidity, spice, ease of the wine, alcohol content, what foods, if any, a wine was best to drink with, and learnd how to read bottle labels.

Each attendee has an information pack, which includes descriptions of each region, space to make notes on different wines and a colour chart. Six wines are tasted during each two hour weekly session.

This qualification provides the knowledge required for those wishing to progress on to Level 3.

Fees include study material, tuition and examination.

Courses Held on Tuesday evenings at Mumbles Fine Wines by their Qualified W.S.E.T. Tutor John

Roberts Duration of Course: 8 x 2hour evening session plus End of course multiple choice assessment.

Number of Students needed for course: 5-10. Price for the 8 week course: From £265 (Vat Exempt) per student (depending on the number of Students).


- Booking Conditions: Bookings on courses cannot be reserved without payment of fees and places will only be confirmed once payment is received. Cancellations of confirmed places are accepted up to 10 working days prior to the start of the course. An administration fee of £25.00 will be charged, plus the cost of study materials supplied, and the remainder of the course fee returned to the payee. If a confirmed course booking is cancelled, for whatever reason, during the ten working days prior to the start of the course, or at any time after the start of the course, the fee remains payable in full. Once a booking is confirmed, any transfer to another course or to another applicant will only be accepted on payment of an administration fee of £25.00. Transfer requests must be made before the start of the course. Fees will only be refunded in full if the School cancels or changes a date of a course.

If you have any queries with regard to your course or the above information please contact John Roberts on 01792 367663 or email John at mail@mumblesfinewines.co.uk.

For businesses with more than 6 members of staff who would like their staff to be trained up to W.S.E.T. Standard please contact them for special offers.

Howard & Palmer Ltd, owner of Mumbles Fine Wines, is an Approved Programme Provider (APP) for the Wine & Spirit Education Trust.


WINE & SPIRIT EDUCATION TRUST (WSET)

The leading provider of wine education, based in London, offering courses and qualifications for both wine trade and consumer at several different levels in about 30 countries and seven languages. A WSET Diploma is the usual prerequisite for studding to become a Master of Wine.

The Wine & Spirit Education Trust, often referred to as WSET, is a British organisation which arranges courses and exams in the field of wine and spirits. WSET was founded in 1969, is headquartered in London and is generally regarded as one of the world's leading provider of wine education. It grew out of the Wine & Spirit Association’s Education Committee and was set up with the financial assistance of the Vintners’ Company. The management of the WSET reports to a Board of Trustees made up of 8 members; three from The Vintners’ Company, three from the Wine & Spirit Association, one from the Worshipful Company of Distillers and another one from the Institute of Masters of Wine.

The courses given by WSET were originally intended for people in the wine & spirit trade. The WSET programmes have increasingly been attended also by non-professional connoisseurs. The WSET also offers professional certification in the United States, with programs in New York, Pennsylvania, and Washington.


Course levels:

The course content of WSET courses has its focus on general theoretical knowledge of the world of wine and spirits (countries and regions of production, regulations, their style of wine and spirits, grape varieties &c.), and practical identification of beverages and their flavours, including wine tasting techniques.

As of 2008, the levels of courses were as following, using the levels of the National Qualifications Framework of UK:

Level 1

- Level 1 Award in Wines: This qualification was initially created for the front-of-house staff within the on-trade sector. It has grown into a course with global appeal, providing basic product knowledge to first time employees in the wine industry and the interested consumer alike.

- Level 1 Award in Wine Service: This qualification provides an introduction to front line staff wishing to gain basic wine service skills. It can be seen as a quick way to cover the basics for wine service and is ideal for people preparing for their first job in wine service, or those wishing to make a transition to wine service. Please note that to gain this qualification students must also successfully pass the Level 1 Award in Wines or the Level 2 or 3 Award in Wines & Spirits.

- Level 1 Award in Spirits: This qualification aims to provide the basic product knowledge and skills in the service of spirits to help prepare a person for their first job in hospitality or in other sectors of the spirits industry. This course may also appeal to the interested spirits consumer.


Level 2

- Level 2 Award in Wines and Spirits: This qualification is popular with wine and spirit employees and will give students excellent all-round product knowledge. The course is also suitable for the interested consumer.

- Level 2 Award in Spirits: This qualification underpins the skills needed in all areas of the spirit trade – customer service, hospitality, retail and wholesale. The course is also appropriate for students who are not employed in the drinks industry and wish to broaden their knowledge of spirits in a structured way.


Level 3

- Level 3 Award in Wines and Spirits: This qualification is open to students who hold the WSET Level 2 Award in Wines & Spirits or can demonstrate the equivalent level of knowledge. It is recommended that students complete the Level 2 Award in Wines & Spirits before progressing to the Level 3 Award. It is a prerequisite for candidates planning to study for the WSET Level 4 Diploma in Wines and Spirits qualification.

- International Higher Certificate in Wines and Spirits: This qualification is designed for students for whom English is not their first language, or where the Level 3 Award in Wines & Spirits is not available in their mother tongue. The syllabus is aligned to that of the Level 3 Award in Wine & Spirits, but with a different assessment method which does not include short written answer questions or a written tasting note. Students wishing to study towards the WSET Diploma in Wines & Spirits will need to complete the WSET Diploma Entry Examination, once they have passed the International Higher Certificate exam. This qualification is only available through WSET International providers only.


Level 4

- Level 4 Diploma in Wines and Spirits: This qualification is suitable for those working in the trade wishing to progress to roles such as food and beverage management, working as a member of a marketing team responsible for product ranges, a wine buyer, sales executive or other professional role in the wines and spirits industry. This qualification is also suitable for the dedicated wine enthusiast wishing to build on knowledge gained at Level 3 and acquire further expertise in wine tasting. Candidates who successfully pass the diploma are permitted to put AIWS (Associate of the Institute of Wine and Spirits) after their name.


Level 5

- Honours Diploma: The WSET Level 5 Honours Diploma is an individual research project that enables students to develop skills in research, evaluation and analysis in a wine and spirit related subject of their choice. This qualification is open to anyone holding the WSET Level 4 Diploma.

- WSET Certified Educator: WSET offer a training program for candidates who wish to teach WSET courses at an Approved Program Provider. The candidate must have passed the level above the one they wish to teach and after completing the appropriate teaching modules may become a 'Nominated Educator'. Candidates who have passed the Level 4 Diploma and completed all six educator modules and passed the assessment, qualify as a 'WSET Certified Educator'.

WSET's courses are also given by a large number of "Approved Programme Providers" around the world. This has made WSET's course levels the international de facto standard for "practical" knowledge of wine and spirits, outside academic programmes of oenology, viticulture, food technology and similar subjects, where science and engineering aspects of beverage production tend to be in focus.

WSET has created a membership body for WSET Diploma holders called "Institute of Wines & Spirits", and upon completion of the WSET Diploma are permitted to put 'AIWS' (Associate of the Institute of Wine and Spirits) after their name. Qualification at the WSET Diploma level 4 is generally required to be allowed into the Master of Wine training, which is arranged by a body (The Institute of Masters of Wine) separate from the WSET.


MASTER OF WINE

Qualifications received by true experts on the world wine trade, awarded by the prestigious Institute of Master of Wine, whose principal sit is located in the United Kingdom. Born in the mid 1950´s from an initiative of industry professionals, its principal aim is the examination and certification of the capacities and knowledge in practically all fields of those aspiring to become wine experts.

Exams in English language are very exigent and whoever passes them is granted the title of Master of Wine or MW, intitials which members proudly place after their names.

The number of candidates is terribly high, while that of MWs is very low (in December 2008, only 277 active members, of which only one bearing a Spanish passport).

- Objectives: The Institute of Masters of Wine is a non-profit organization funded by its members and by corporate sponsorship from within the wine industry. Its stated objectives are:

To promote the knowledge, understanding and appreciation of wine.
To uphold the highest standards within the wine industry.
To enhance personal and professional goals in pursuing wine-related activities.


- Qualification: Before enrolling on the MW study programme, prospective students must obtain a Diploma level qualification from the Wine & Spirit Education Trust, or another wine qualification of at least a comparable standard. Also, by the time they attain the title 'MW' they will need to have had five years trade experience. Applicants must submit a basic essay, a tasting paper and a brief statement explaining their interest in becoming a Master of Wine.

The study programme is made up of three stages:

Stage 1 is the foundation year and gives students the opportunity to meet Masters of Wine and fellow students in both professional and social settings.

Stage 1 assessment includes six pieces of work throughout the year, culminating in an exam that takes place in early June. The exam involves one tasting paper and two essays.

Stage 2 is a crucial time for students - it can be very intense but immensely rewarding. Students must provide three pieces of work for assessment throughout the Stage 2 year, and must pass both the Theory and Practical parts of the June MW Examination in order to progress to the Research Paper in Stage 3.

Stage 3. The Research paper is an individual paper of between 6,000 and 10,000 words in length, on a topic of the student's choice. The whole qualification takes at least three years to complete in full.


- Membership: Until 1983, the examination was limited to United Kingdom wine importers, merchants and retailers. The first non-UK Master of Wine was awarded in 1988. In 2005, there were 278 members of 18 different nationalities, living in 19 countries throughout the world. Most of the 74 members living outside the UK became members since about 1990. As of May 2015, there are 322 MWs in the world. Today, members hold a range of occupations including winemakers, viticulturists, winemaking consultants, wine writers and journalists, wine educators, and wine service, restaurant and hotel management. In addition, many are involved in the purchasing, importing, distribution, sales and marketing of wine. Typically, sommeliers choose to become Master Sommelier, but a handful of individuals have achieved both qualifications.

- Notable Masters of Wine: Pierpaolo Petrassi; Patrick Farrell; Tim Atkin; Gerard Basset; Nicolas Belfrage; Michael Broadbent; Clive Coates; Mary Ewing-Mulligan; Ned Goodwin; Doug Frost; Anthony Hanson; Jeannie Cho Lee; Benjamin Lewin; Brian McGrath; Jasper Morris; Jonathan Pedley; David Peppercorn; Jancis Robinson; Arne Ronold; Igor Ryjenkov; Jennifer Simonetti-Bryan; Serena Sutcliffe; Rebecca Gibb.


TASTING WITH PEDRO BENITO URBINA

Whether you love Rioja wine, enjoy exploring new wine styles or sampling new varieties, you’re in for a treat for this October with the winemaker Pedro Benito Urbina at the Sketty Hall. The light and spacious Patti Restaurant symbolises the style and elegance of Sketty Hall and Urbina Wines.

A winemaker is any person who practices oenology, regardless of whether he or she has a specific degree for it. Basically, there are two main categories: Those who are fully and exclusively employed by a winery or a wine producing firm, and those (an even growing number) who render their services part-time at different locations. Among the latter are the famous "flying winemakers", who even fly to different continents to offer their services (from which they take their name).

In Spain, the winemaker (he or she) has acquired a much deserved professional prestige in recent years. If in the past they were considered simple workers and prominence was exclusively given to the owners, at present some are regarded as authors (giving rise to author’s wines), who by signing their works of art can multiply the wine’s price, and increase the recognition by the specialist press and the general public. Moreover, many of them have their own wineries or brands for their craftings, besides collaborating with third parties and/or lecturing on wines.


Bodegas Urbina is one of the most traditional and family own wineries remaining in Spain. It was founded 1870, and even today their family members still growing their vines, produce, and export the wine they produce. But this is not the only charm of this peculiar bodega. The facilities are located in Cuzcurrita del Río Tirón, in a very beautiful medieval town.

It is perhaps that balance between ancient tradition and cutting-edge technology that best characterizes Bodegas Urbina in Cuzcurrita. The recent history of this bodega started in 1975, when Pedro Benito Urbina Senior becomes in charge of the winemaking. In 1975 an ambitious renovation project takes place, with his wife Catalina Sáez and his brother Jesús Angel.

The winemaking philosophy is base in the respect for tradition, using dry-farmed, densely planted, traditionally trained vines, and plenty of artisan vineyard labour: regular pruning, green-harvesting, bunch-thining, and in the winery the perform spontaneous fermentations without adding any commercial yeast. With these methods, wines cannot lie, and any experienced taster should be capable of identifying these as Spanish Tempranillo based reds, almost certainly Rioja but not necessarily so. After all, the issue of typicity is their mayor concern, since they are dealing here with the westernmost section of Rioja, with a more continental climate and, therefore, with an area that is difficult to compare with the rest of the region.


- Urbina 2013 Blanco:  Pale golden yellow colour with green glints. Aromatic, floral nose (acacia) with white fruit, melon and ripe citrus notes. Good body and structure, flavours of apricot, peach and some pear notes with a subtle, elegant, slightly and lingering finish. £9,49

- Urbina 2014 Rosado: Bright, delicate, pale, salmon pink colour. Dominated by aromas of red fruits including strawberry, cherry and cranberry with delicate floral notes. Excellent weight packed with summer berry fruits, strawberry, hints of grapefruit and crisp Granny Smith apples. The finish is creamy yet crisp, dry and long. A great Rioja Rosado. £9,49

- Urbina 2008 Crianza: Ruby colour with garnet hues. On the nose, good intensity with elegant, mature and cherries, vanilla, coconut and spice on the nose. On the palate, well-balanced and complex, creamy smooth, velvety texture of red berries, nuts and spice flavours with firm tannins and background, good structure, long lasting, with persistent aftertaste. Pleasant and easy-drinking. £12.49

- Urbina 1999 Selección: Intense, dark ruby red colour. Very concentrated nose of berries, damsons, and figs. On the palate, full-bodied, rich fruit cake and savoury vanilla flavours, well-structured, mellow, firm tannins with the fine elegance of the Urbina marque. £15.99

- Urbina 1998 Reserva Especial (Blue label): Dark ruby red colour with amber glints. On the nose, good intensity. It has a very pronounced nose of seductive figs, apricots, nuts, savoury vanilla oak bouquet. On the palate, voluptuous, sweet middle palate with delicious, concentrated ripe berry, mature fruit broadening out. Wonderful length, classy and complex wine. £18.29

- Urbina 1996 Gran Reserva: Colour reddish garnet. On the nose, powerful, complex and elegant. Rich vegetable and tobacco aromas, a perfect harmony of oak and glorious fruit. On the palate, intense rich fruit, prunes, dates and sweet raisin flavours, silky and creamy. A wine with great finesse and velvet smoothness, wondrous length and full finish. £19.99

Mumbles Pier Tourism in the Swansea Bay (Wales)

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MUMBLES IS A CHARMING FISHING VILLAGE

Mumbles (Welsh: Mwmbwls) is a headland sited on the western edge of Swansea Bay. Mumbles has been noted for its unusual place name. The headland is thought by some to have been named by French sailors, after the shape of the two anthropomorphic islands which comprise the headland. Another possible source of the name is from the word Mamucium which is thought to derive from the Celtic language meaning breast-shaped hill.


Its lighthouse was built during the 1790s and was converted to solar powered operation in 1995. The nearby pier was opened in 1898 at the terminus of the Mumbles Railway, which in its time was one of the oldest passenger railways in the world. The railway closed in 1960. These days the name 'Mumbles' is given to a district covering the electoral wards of Oystermouth, Newton, West Cross and Mayals.


Your holiday in Swansea, Mumbles and Gower can be filled with beaches, events, activities, great places to stay, walking, surfing, gardens and more for you to explore.


Walk round stunning coastal paths to the beaches of Langland and Caswell or shop in the classy boutique stores of Newton Road. Explore quaint streets lined with colourful cottages and stop off for a locally-brewed ale in one of the pubs along the famous Mumbles mile, all when you visit this charming fishing village.


With its idyllic beaches and superb coastal paths, exquisite shops and gourmet restaurants, Mumbles is without doubt one of the UK's most complete tourist destinations and truly has something for everyone to enjoy.


Foodies can dine in everything from lively pizza parlours to healthy cafes and fine dining fish restaurants, while children will leave with memories of endless days at the beach, classic amusement arcades and world-beating ice cream.


Outdoor enthusiasts can use Mumbles as a base to explore the superb Gower Peninsula, where excellent surf, some beautiful hiking and much, much more await. Those who prefer the high street will find high end fashion, stylish galleries and luxurious beauty parlours all within easy walking distance.


Swansea Bay is blessed with many award-winning beaches such as Bracelet Bay (Blue Flag and Seaside Award), Caswell Bay (Blue Flag and Seaside Award), Langland Bay (Blue Flag and Seaside Award) and Limeslade Bay (Green Coast Award and Rurual Seaside Award).


- Mumbles Beach: Is a very small sheltered area of sand and rock pools sandwiched between Swansea Bay beach and Bracelet Bay in the south eastern corner of the Gower Peninsula, Swansea, Wales.


A lot of sea life can be found in the pools and under the rocks, left trapped by the retreating tides. During the summer, this beach can get very busy with people combing the beach for hermit crabs and small fishes. The beach is accessible from a flight of steps beside the Mumbles Pier.



- Swansea Beach: Swansea Beach stretches for five miles along Swansea Bay between the Maritime Quarter and the "Knab Rock" near Mumbles in Wales. It is backed by a promenade/cycle track (part of National Cycle Route 4) and a coastal road. The southern section of the Swansea Bay beach between Blackpill and Mumbles is designated Site of Special Scientific Interest.


Swansea Beach has a couple of named sections. The section of beach just outside Victoria park is known as "The Slip". Blackpill Beach is the section around the mouth of the Clyne River.


- Tourism: In recent years, tourism has provided a boost to the local economy. Swansea Bay itself was popular in Victorian times and in the early part of the 20th century. However, despite having dunes and golden sands over a large section of the Bay all the way from the mouth of the River Neath to Blackpill, with the exception of the Swansea Docks breakwater, it now rarely hosts more than a few hundred visitors on even the best day, even in the height of summer and has seen little of the tourist boom. Ironically in the last ten years or so, with the reduction in pollution has come an increase in the amount of sand on the lower stretches of the Bay at low tide which were once almost pure mud flats.


In an attempt to popularise the Bay, in late February 2007, Swansea Council announced plans for a major revamp of the entire Bay from The Slip all the way round to Mumbles Pier. These include new toilets at The Slip, further improvements to the St. Helens Ground, housing on part of the Recreation Ground, a new 'Extreme Sports' Centre at Sketty Lane, further improvements at the popular Blackpill Lido including a new cycle and pedestrian bridge linking the coast path to the Clyne Valley Cycle Path, a multi-story car park at Mumbles Quarry and mixed development at Oystermouth Square and improvements to the Mumbles Pier. There are children's play areas at Blackpill and the area near the Swansea city centre called "The Slip".


- Things to do: With so much to choose from, we thought we'd put together a list of suggestions to help you get the most of your Mumbles holiday.


1. An Ice Cream Tasting: If there's one thing Mumbles does very, it's ice cream. Joes on Mumbles Road is the most famous of the parlours, with its classic creamy vanilla seeing queues going far down the road, while Verdis on the seafront is another favourite for their numerous flavours of delicious Italian gelato. tFortes, located overlooking Limeslade Bay, was actually the original Ice cream parlour.


2. Learn to Surf: Mumbles is surrounded by the sea and in the right conditions there are some great waves. If you've never surfed before the gentle waves at Caswell Bay are the perfect place to learn, and local surf school Surf GSD are on hand to show you the basics. More experienced surfers will find several fun peaks at Langland, while the 22 miles of the Gower coastline to the west has points, reefs and beaches all of which produce some great waves.


3. A Day at the Beach: With their golden sands and classic beach huts, endless rockpools and great cafes, the beaches of Mumbles have all the ingredients for a classic day at the seaside. Caswell is the largest, with a wide expanse of sand at low tide, while Langland is extremely popular due to its great cafes and proximity to the village. Towards the lighthouse you will find the pretty coves known as Bracelet Bay and Limeslade Bay - the perfect place for a quiet day soaking up the sun.


4. A Coastal Walk: Head arond the cliffs from the Mumbles Lighthouse and you will find the superbly maintained coastal walkway that takes you all the way from Mumbles Head to Caswell (about 3 miles). Carry on further still and you really get to see the beauty of Gower, with idyllic, isolated bays like Pwlldu and Brandy Cove awaiting those who are prepared to make the effort. It's possible to walk the entire south coast in a day, though you may want to break this up over the course of a week and enjoy a tasty lunch on one of Gower's excellent pubs.


5. Be Pampered for a day: Mumbles is where Swansea's 'ladies-that-lunch' come to shop and be seen, so it's little surprise that you'll find several exceptional beauty salons in the village. Enjoy a morning shopping for bargains in the stylish boutique stores then treat yourself to a massage, hair cut or one of numerous other beauty treatments.


6. A Good Pint: As well as its trendy wine bars and classy cafes, Mumbles is home to some truly classic British pubs. The Pilot at the end of the Seafront has its own microbrewery, while The Park Inn, tucked away in the backstreets near the church has a great atmoshpere and a regularly changing menu of great ales. Ale fans can complete their tour with a pint at the Mumbles Ale House on Dunns Lane, which sources the best, award winning ales from around the country.


MUMBLES PIER

The Mumbles Pier is an 835 feet (255 m) long Victorian pier built in 1898. It is located at the south-western corner of Swansea Bay near the village of Mumbles within the city and county of Swansea, Wales.


- Construction: Designed by W. Sutcliffe Marsh and promoted by John Jones Jenkins of the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway, the pier opened on 10 May 1898 at a cost of £10,000. It was the western terminus for the world's first passenger carrying railway, the Swansea and Mumbles Railway; and a major terminal for the White Funnel paddle steamers of P and A Campbell, unloading tourists from routes along the River Severn and Bristol Channel.


- Heyday: The Amusement Equipment Company (AMECO) gained a licence to operate the pier from 1 October 1937. The pier was sectioned in World War II, but AMECO acquired the freehold in 1957, extensively reconstructing the facility and adding a landing jetty. A new arcade was built on the pier's frontage in 1966. AMECO spent between £25,000 and £30,000 per annum on the maintenance and replacement of the steelwork between 1975 and 1985.


- Reopening: Closed on 1 October 1987 for a £40,000 refit, which included renewal of the steel around the entrance, the pier reopened on Good Friday 1988.


Today, the pier is used only for fishing and tourism, offering panoramic views of Swansea Bay with the Mumbles Lighthouse on one side and Port Talbot on the other. Halfway along the Pier on the Bay side is a Royal National Lifeboat Institution lifeboat station. Still housing the historical records of the local Mumbles lifeboat, the House also currently handles the 'Tyne' Class boat. The Pier complex is owned and operated by the Bollom family.


The land beside the pier is now an entertainment complex comprising bars, restaurant, an ice-skating rink (opened in 2006 and featured in an ITV Wales documentary series) and an amusement arcade.


- Future plans: In recent years the pier has fallen into a state of disrepair with a large section fenced off to visitors and other areas patched up to maintain safety. The owners plan to repair the pier along with the regeneration of the nearby area. The plans include the building of a new hotel and spa, a conference and exhibition centre and a new boardwalk linking the Knab rock with the pier.


- Mumbles Lighthouse: Mumbles Lighthouse, completed in 1794, is a lighthouse located in Mumbles, near Swansea. The structure, which sits on the outer of two islands off Mumbles Head, is clearly visible from any point along the five mile sweep of Swansea Bay. Along with the nearby lifeboat station, it is the most photographed landmark in the village.


The tower has two tiers and initially two open coal fire lights were displayed. These open coal fire lights were difficult to maintain and were soon replaced by a single oil powered light within a cast iron lantern.


In 1860, the oil powered light was upgraded to a dioptric light and the fort that surrounds the tower was built by the War Department. In 1905, an occulting mechanism, where the light was made to flash, was fitted. This was partially automated in 1934. By 1977, the cast iron lantern had deteriorated beyond repair and was removed. A different lantern was added in 1987. In 1995, the main light was replaced and an array of solar panels and emergency monitoring equipment were added.


SWANSEA BAY

Swansea Bay (Welsh: Bae Abertawe) is a bay on the Bristol Channel on the southern coast of Wales. Places on the bay include Swansea and Port Talbot. The River Neath, River Tawe, River Afan, River Kenfig and Clyne River flow into the bay.


Swansea Bay (and upper reaches of the Bristol Channel) experience a large tidal range (Springs max 10m). The shipping ports in Swansea Bay are Swansea Docks, Port Talbot Docks and Briton Ferry wharfs.


- History: Oyster fishing was once an important industry in Swansea Bay, employing 600 people at its height in the 1860s. However, overfishing, disease and pollution had all but wiped out the oyster population by 1920. In 2005 plans were announced to reintroduce the Oyster farming industry.


- Pollution: For the last two decades of the 20th century, the bay was blighted by pollution, partly from the surrounding heavy industry and partly from sewerage outlets being sited at inappropriate locations including the main one that was located just seaward of Mumbles Lighthouse.


A pumping station inside the cliff adjacent to Knab Rock brought all of Swansea city's effluent in a raw form to this point. Adding to the problem was the natural current flow of the waters in the Bay which often did not move the polluted waters further out to sea. Ironically, the outgoing tide did not carry the raw sewage down the adjacent Bristol Channel, but instead cause it to be sucked in around the circumference of the Bay and only then out down the Channel.


If not fully discharged on that tide, the incoming tide would then push the same effluent up the Channel, and once again circulate around the Bay. Efforts were made by the local authority to reduce the pollution in the Bay but care had to be taken to ensure the pollution did not move to the popular beach resorts in south Gower instead.


This original sewer outlet was finally made inactive in around 1996 following the construction of a brand new pipeline which ran all the way back around the Bay following the line of the old Mumbles Railway as far as Beach Street, along the sea-side of the Maritime Quarter and through Swansea Docks to a new £90 million sewage treatment plant at Crymlyn Burrows near Port Tennant from which a new outlet was made, extending further out to sea. As a consequence of the huge improvement these works have made, it is hoped that Swansea Bay will achieve Blue Flag Beach status. Aberavon beach was awarded Blue Flag status in December 2007.


POWER GENERATION

- Fossil: There is one existing GE built gas-fired power station located just inland at Baglan Bay. A second gas fired power station, the "Abernedd Power Station" has been approved for construction.

- Biomass plans: A new biomass power station has been approved for construction near the coast at Port Talbot.


- Tidal plans: Swansea Bay (along with the rest of the Bristol Channel) has one of the highest tidal ranges in the world. This offers a potential for electricity generation using tidal lagoons. A proposal has been put forward by Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay Ltd. for a tidal lagoon to be constructed. The tidal lagoon would be sited just south of the Queen's Dock between River Tawe and River Neath estuaries. This project is controversial, partly due to the amount of subsidy required to make the project viable and also because of the potential damage to an AONB and MCZ in Cornwall where Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay seek to re-open a disused quarry at Dean Point from which to source the rock for the lagoon.


- Wind plans: In addition to tidal power, construction of an offshore windfarm in the Bay has been approved, but construction has now been deferred owing to the costs involved. The windfarm was to have been sited at Scarweather Sands, about 5 km (3 mi) off the coast and visible from Porthcawl.

Pata Negra Tapas Bar and Restaurant in Bristol - Urbina Wines

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PATA NEGRA TAPAS BAR AND RESTAURANT IN BRISTOL - URBINA WINES

Pata Negra is a "Spanish Tapas & Wine Bar" in the heart of Bristol’s Old City, on Clare Street just at the end of Corn Street. Here there’s no need to book, unless you’re bringing a party of 8 or more, and is a great place to go for a quick glass of wine or an after work sherry.

Pata Negra is the fusion of an authentic Spanish Tapas & Wine Bar, live music bar and private event space:


- On the ground floor: You will find the main tapas and wine bar. Here, guests can drink wines from the Iberian peninsula (and a few from further afield), with a wine list that includes a small selection of sparkling wines, with the rest of the list ordered based on the particular region from which the wines come.

This part of pata negra is made and decorated with polished wooden floors, a mix of tables and high benches with heavy iron stools and distressed marble-effect walls.

It’s effortlessly cool and timeless.


- On the first floor and a second floor: You can enjoy Cocktails and Music. Here, you will find a stylish lounge bar where regular live music is play.

Literally meaning, ‘Black Hoof’ the name, Pata Negra, refers to the finest Jamon Iberico, produced from free range Black Iberian pigs, fed on acorns (Bellota), and cured for 36 months.

Needless to say, cured meats are a particular focus for this establishment.

You’ll also find a regularly changing menu of seasonal tapas dishes, fresh seafood, vegetarian dishes & a short but sweet dessert menu.


The kitchen here is being run by Dave Daly, a well known chef who has worked in a number of Bristol restaurants, including Bordeaux Quay and Rockfish and Michelin-starred Harveys.

The food menu is based purely around tapas, with dishes reasonably priced from £2.50 up to £18.

The owners of Pata Negra also run different restaurant like: Hyde & Co; The Milk Thistle; The Ox; and The Milk Thistle.


- Opening Hours: Tuesday - Saturday 12pm - 12am Sunday 12pm - 6pm
- The tapas menu: Is served from 12pm – 3pm & 6pm – 10.30pm.
- Lunchtime offer: 3 Tapas for £10 available 12pm - 3pm
- During the afternoon: 3pm – 6pm, you’ll find their Pintxos Hours, where you can enjoy three pintxos & a glass of sherry for £7
- Noche Negra: Venture up the stairs above Pata Negra, or via the secret side door, and you’ll find the music bar ‘Noche Negra’. Open from 9pm – 4am Thursday to Saturday, here they serve Latin-inspired, fruit laden cocktails in a relaxed, party atmosphere.


- Thursday night: Is turned over to live music with a roster of talented local bands.
- Whilst Friday & Saturday:  Are party nights with the regular DJ’s – Queen Bee, Speakerboxx & DJ Jam-On. Bookings are available before 10pm and there is no cover charge for guests coming up from Pata Negra or from their other venues, The Ox, The Milk Thistle and Hyde & Co.
- ‘Noche Privada’:  Their top floor bar can be exclusively booked for events and parties of up to 120 persons. We are licensed until 4am and can provide various catering options such as our Tapas Feast or Pintxos.


- Name: Pata Negra
- Address: Pata Negra is located on Charet Street, Old City, Bristol.
- Email: info@patanegrabristol.com
- Web: www.patanegrabristol.com
- Telephone: 0117 9276762


SPANISH TAPAS CULTURE

Small Spanish savoury dishes, typically served with drinks at a bar. The origin Spanish tapa, literally means 'cover, lid' (because in the past dishes were given free with the drink, served on a dish balanced on, therefore ‘covering’, the glass).

Tapas are a variety of small savoury Spanish dishes, often served as a snack with drinks, or with other tapas as a meal. To “tapear”, going from bar to bar for drinks and tapas, is an essential part of the social culture of Spain.


In Spain tapas is not a starter. It may be a smaller version (normally a quarter version) of something else on the menu or it may be sold exclusively as tapas. Usually if you start eating tapas, you finish eating tapas, and you don't stop until you're full. Also tapas are not a collection of small dishes brought out on a platter and eaten as a main course. The Spanish have a word for this 'tabla'.

Anything can be tapas - paella, croquettes, ham and cheese on toast, truly anything. As long as it is small and served with your drink (either free or at a surcharge), it is tapas.


In Spanish, you can have one 'tapa' and two or more 'tapas'. The word is undoubtedly plural. So when you're in Spain, feel free to say 'I'm not very hungry, I think I'll get one tapa', because that is how it would be used in Spanish. But, in the English language it's fine to use the word 'tapas' as a singular word.

Because tapas are informal, and the bars are often busy, they are commonly eaten standing up at the bar or at small tables or even upturned barrels, and the atmosphere is convivial and noisy. If you are invited to "go for tapas", you'll be visiting lots of bars and probably only taking a single tapas in each.

The tapas may or may not be free. Unfortunately the days of free tapas are over in much of Spain. If the tapas are given to you without you have asked for it, it will be free.


- History of tapas: There are a number of theories of the origin of the custom of eating small snacks with drinks.

Legend has it that because of illness the thirteenth century Castilian King Alfonso X (the Wise) had to eat small snacks with his wine between meals to maintain his strength, and after recovering passed a law that wine or beer served in taverns had to be accompanied by food.


More probably the origins were practical, with bread or a small plate of ham or olives being used to keep dust or insects out of the drink (the literal meaning of “tapa” is “lid”).

It was also the custom for agricultural and other manual workers to eat small snacks so that they could continue working until the main meal of the day.


- How to order: The first thing to do is check whether you can order tapas at the tables. In some places they only serve tapas at the bar and you have to order raciones (large plates) at tables or out on the terrace.

Once seated, don’t order everything at once. Many tapas are already prepared and you could end up with 5-6 dishes arriving at once. Also, you may see something “walk by” that looks good, so best to start with just one or two tapas each and take it from there.

The barman will usually run a tab for you, which is paid after you have finished eating. Some bars, where food and drink is taken outside, charge with each round of tapas and drinks.


- Prices and eating times: Prices vary; expect to pay 2-3€ for a typical tapa, though these days – and especially in “gastrobars” – they can go as high as 5-6€. Kitchens are usually open between 1.00 – 4.00 in the afternoon, and later again from around 8.00 pm – midnight, though some bars will stay open between 5.00 – 8.00 serving drinks and cold snacks. This is also the time Spanish people go out to merendar (have coffee and cake). Many bars are open for breakfast, serving tostadas (toasted rolls with a variety of toppings), coffee and juices.


- Ingredients (Mediterranean diet): As with the Spanish diet in general, tapas are made from traditionally mediterranean ingredients, especially olive oil, garlic, fish and seafood, and free range pork. Rice, in the form of paella (though here it is usually called the “arroz del día” or “rice of the day”), and potato omelette (tortilla) are also common.

There is a huge variety of fish and seafood on offer, from salt cod (bacalao) and tuna to calamares (squid) and prawns. Although beef and lamb are also popular, the most common meat is pork, much of which comes from free range “pata negra” pigs, used for jamón Ibérico.

Every part of the animal is used, including cheeks, trotters, tripes and blood. There is also a wide selection of cheeses, such as Manchego, and it is usually made from sheep and goat’s milk, or a blend of the two. Salads are usually simple dishes of lettuce, tomato and onion and are not often found in small tapa sizes.


- Vegetarians: While there are often a few vegetarian options on most tapas menus, you should be aware that many bars may fail to mention that their grilled mushrooms come with bits of jamón serrano or the stuffed courgette is actually filled with ground meat.

The typical potato salad (ensaladilla) is served with prawns, and even a mixed salad will often come with tinned tuna on top. Probably the best option is to tell the waiter or barman straight away: “Soy vegetariano/a. Que tapas no tienen carne ni pescado?” (I’m vegetarian, which tapas don’t have any meat or seafood?).


MOST POPULAR TAPAS IN SPANISH CUSINE

- Aceitunas: Olives, sometimes with a filling of anchovies or red bell pepper.
- Albóndigas: Meatballs – most often pork, but also of beef or seafood.
- Arroz del Día: Rice of the day, with meat and/or seafood, served at lunchtime.
- Allioli:"Garlic and oil" the classic ingredients are only garlic, oil and salt, but the most common form of it includes mayonnaise and garlic, served on bread or with boiled or grilled potatoes, fish, meat or vegetables.


- Bacalao: Salt cod, breaded and fried or stewed in tomato sauce.
- Banderillas or pinchos de encurtidos: Are cold tapas made from small food items pickled in vinegar and skewered together. They are also known as gildas or piparras and consist of pickled items, like olives, baby onions, baby cucumbers, chiles (guindilla) with pieces of pepper and other vegetables. Sometimes they include an anchovy.
- Boquerones: White anchovies served in vinegar (boquerones en vinagre) or deep fried.


- Cazón en Adobo: Fried marinated dogfish.
- Calamares: Fried squid rings.
- Chipirones: Small squid, usually cooked “a la plancha” (on the griddle).
- Chocos: Cuttlefish, usually breaded and deep fried.
- Calamares del Campo: breaded and fried onions and peppers
- Calamares or rabas: Rings of battered squid.


- Carne mechada: Slow-cooked, tender beef.
- Chopitos: Battered and fried tiny squid, also known as puntillitas.
- Cojonuda (superb female): A kind of pincho, it consists of a slice of Spanish morcilla with a fried quail egg over a slice of bread. It is very common in Burgos, because the most well-known and widespread Spanish morcilla is from there. It can also be prepared with a little strip of red, spicy pepper.
- Cojonudo (superb male): A kind of pincho, it consists of a slice of Spanish chorizo with a fried quail egg over a slice of bread.


- Chorizo al vino: Chorizo sausage slowly cooked in wine.
- Chorizo a la sidra: Chorizo sausage slowly cooked in cider.
- Croquetas: A common sight in bar counters and homes across Spain, served as a tapa, a light lunch, or a dinner along with a salad.


- Empanadillas: Large or small turnovers filled with meats and vegetables.
- Ensaladilla rusa: (Olivier salad), made with mixed boiled vegetables with tuna, olives and mayonnaise.
- Espinacas con garbanzos: Spinach and chick peas with olive oil and garlic.
- Ensaladilla: Potato salad with mayonnaise and either tuna or prawns.


- Gazpacho: Cold Tomato soup with cucumber and garlic.
- Gambas al Ajillo: Fresh prawns in sizzling olive oil with garlic and chili peppers.
- Gambas: Prawns sauteed in salsa negra (peppercorn sauce), al ajillo (with garlic), or pil-pil (with chopped chili peppers).
 - Montaditos: Small filled buns, often served toasted.
- Mejillones rellenos: Stuffed mussels, called tigres ("tigers") in Navarre because of the spicy taste.


- Papas arrugadas or papas con mojo (see Canarian wrinkly potatoes) (Canary Islands): Very small, new potatoes boiled in salt water similar to sea water, then drained, slightly roasted and served with mojo, a garlic, Spanish paprika, red pepper, cumin seed, olive oil, wine vinegar, salt and bread miga (fresh bread crumbs without the crust) to thicken it
- Patatas bravas or papas bravas: Fried potato dices (sometimes parboiled and then fried, or simply boiled) served with salsa brava a spicy tomato sauce, sometimes served also with mayo or aioli.


- Pimientos de Padrón: Small green peppers originally from Padrón (a municipality in the province of A Coruña, Galicia) that are fried in olive oil or served raw, most are mild, but a few in each batch are quite spicy.
- Pulpo a la gallega (Galician-style octopus): Or polbo á feira (octopus in the trade fair style) in Galicia, is cooked in boiling water (preferably in a copper cauldron or pan) and served hot in olive or vegetable oil. The octopus pieces are seasoned with substantial amounts of paprika, giving it its recognisable red color, and sea salt for texture and flavour.


- Pincho moruno (Moorish spike): A stick with spicy meat, made of pork, lamb or chicken.
- Queso con anchoas: Castilla or Manchego cured cheese with anchovies on top.
- Raxo: Pork seasoned with garlic and parsley, with added paprika, called zorza.
- Revuelto: Scrambled eggs with various fillings.


- Salmorejo: A thicker version of gazpacho, often used as a sauce.
- Setas al Ajillo: Fresh mushrooms sauteed with olive oil and garlic.
- Solomillo a la castellana: Fried pork scallops, served with an onion and/or Cabrales cheese sauce.
- Solomillo al whisky: Fried pork scallops, marinated using whisky, brandy or white wine and olive oil.
- Jamón Iberico: Thinly sliced salt cured ham from free range pata negra pigs.


- Tortilla: Potato omelette.
- Tortilla de patatas (Spanish omelette) or tortilla española: A type of omelet containing fried chunks of potatoes and sometimes onion.
- Tortilla paisana: a tortilla containing vegetables and chorizo (similar to frittata).
- Tortillitas de camarones (Andalusia): Battered prawn fritters.
- Zamburiñas: Renowned Galician scallops (Chlamys varia), often served in a marinera, tomato-based sauce.


REGIONAL VARIATIONS OF TAPAS IN THE WORLD

The term tapas narrowly refers to a type of Spanish cuisine, but it is also used more broadly to refer to any similar format dining. This is referred to more formally as small plates, but tapas is common. Such dishes are traditionally common in many parts of the world, and have become increasingly popular in the English-speaking world since about 2000, particularly under the influence of Spanish tapas.


- North America and the United Kingdom: Upmarket tapas restaurants and tapas bars are common in many cities of the United States, Mexico, Canada, Ireland and the United Kingdom. As with any cuisine exported from its original country, there can often be significant differences between the original Spanish dishes and the dishes as they are served abroad.


- Mexico: In Mexico, there are not many tapas bars. However, the "cantinas botaneras" come close to the Mexican version of a tapas bar, but they operate on a very different business model. The appetizers (botanas) keep coming as long as the patron keeps ordering beer, liquor or mixed drinks. The more the patron drinks, the more he or she eats.

These establishments, some over a hundred years old, such as La Opera, are particularly popular around the Centro Historico in Mexico City, but there are similar cantinas farther out in Coyocan or even in somewhat nearby cities like Xalapa, Veracruz.


- Argentina: Picada is a type of tapas eaten in Argentina, usually involving only cold dishes, such as olives, ham, salami and different types of cheese.

- Brazil: Tira-gostos (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃiɾɐ ˈɡostʊs]) or petiscos ([peˈt͡ʃiskʊs]) are served in the bars of Brazil and typical as tapas-like side dishes to accompany beer or other alcoholic drinks. The better bars tend to have a greater variety, and rarer, more traditional, dishes (using, for example, lamb or goat meat, which are relatively uncommon in the diet of urbanites in southern Brazil).


People from the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro, which had the most Portuguese and the second-most Spanish immigration in Brazil, are among those who are most proud of their bar culture as a symbol of the city's nightlife, but bars that serve a variety of tapas-like side dishes are common in all state capitals and cities with more than 700,000 inhabitants.

Many tapas typical of Spanish cuisine that are rarer dishes in Portugal are more easily found in Brazil, due to the presence of the cultural heritage of the Spanish Brazilians as a result of immigration.


- Venetian cicchetti: Cicchetti are small tapas-like dishes served in cicchetti bars in Venice, Italy. Venetians typically eat cicchetti for lunch or as late-afternoon snacks.

- Asia: In Korea, drinking establishments often serve anju (안주) of various types, including meat, seafood, and vegetables. In Japan, izakaya are drinking establishments that serve accompaniments similar to tapas. In the Philippines, the term tapa has come to refer to a traditional dish of salt-cured beef served at breakfast.


THE TAPAS MENU AT PATANEGRA IN BRISTOL

Para Picar:
- Olives £2.50
- Quicos (Fried Corn Kernels) £2
- Salted Almonds £2.50
- Bread, E.V. oil, moscatel vinegar £2.50
- Pan Catalan £3


Jamón:
- 36 month hand carved Bellota Jamón 'Pata Negra'£9/18
- Chorizo Teruel £6
- Salamanca mountain salchichón     £5
- Chorizo Morcon £6
- Cured Ibérico morcilla £6


Pescado:
- King prawn, garlic, olive oil (perprawn) £2
- Anchovies, chilli mint & parsley £3
- Mussels, fino, & jamón £5.50
- Pan fried Cornish cod fillet, orange, green olive & fennel dressing £6


Carne:
- Chorizo Ibérico, cider, poached egg, bread crumbs £4
- Slow cooked pork shoulder, sherry vinegar, fennel salad £4
- Rare roast beef, Manchego cream, onions & peppers £6
- Ibérico pork bavette, lardo bread crumbs, PX soaked raisin £6


Verduras:
- Beetroot, feta & mint salad £4
- Chefetnut mushroom, red wine garlic & rosemary £3.50
- Chickpeas, piquillo peppers & fried garlic £3.5
- House tortilla £2.50
- Patatas Bravas £3.50


Queso:
- Mahon semi-cured cheese £3.50
- Zamorano cured sheeps milk cheese £4.50
- Cabrales blue cows milk cheese £4.50


Dulces:
- Chocolate, olive oil shortbread, orange reduction £4.50
- Orange polenta cake with summer berry compote    £4.50
- Saffron & honey pannacotta, baked plums & roasted hazelnuts £4


Lunch time offer:
3 Tapas for £10 available 12pm - 3pm - Salamanca mountain salchichón Anchovies, chilli mint & parsley Cornish cod, fennel, green olive & orange dressing Braised squid, chilli, tomatoes & rosemary Slow cooked pork shoulder, sherry vinegar, fennel sala Rare roast beef, Manchego cream, onions & peppers Chickpeas, piquillo peppers & fried garlic Patatas Bravas.


Party Menu:
- A selection of dishes served feast style, designed for group bookings £25 - Olives Salted Almonds Patatas Bravas Salamanca mountain salchichón Anchovies, chilli, mint & parsley Chickpeas, piquillo peppers & fried garlic Chestnut mushroom, red wine garlic & rosemary Pan fried salt cod, summer vegetables, saffron aioli & fried capers Chorizo Ibérico, cider, poached egg, bread crumbs Crispy chicken thighs, saffron aioli.

The Tourist City of Bristol in South West England

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THE TOURIST CITY OF BRISTOL IN SOUTH WEST ENGLAND

Bristol is a city, unitary authority and county in South West England with an estimated population of 442,500 in 2015. It is England's sixth and the United Kingdom's eighth most populous city, and the second most populous city in Southern England after London. Bristol is one of the eight largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group. People from the city are known as Bristolians.


Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built in the area around the confluence of the Rivers Frome and Avon, and it became known as Brycgstow (Old English "the place at the bridge") around the beginning of the 11th century. Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was part of Gloucestershire until 1373, when it became a county. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London (with York and Norwich) in tax receipts. Bristol was eclipsed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham during the Industrial Revolution. It borders the counties of Somerset and Gloucestershire, with the historic cities of Bath and Gloucester to the southeast and northeast, respectively. The city has a short coastline on the Severn Estuary (which flows into the Bristol Channel).


Bristol's prosperity has been linked with the sea since its earliest days. It was the base for the early voyages of exploration to the New World: On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot was the first European since the Vikings to land in North America; and in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. The Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock.


Bristol's modern economy is built on the creative media, electronics and aerospace industries, and the city-centre docks have been redeveloped as centres of heritage and culture. The city has two universities and a variety of artistic and sporting organisations and venues. It is well connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air including the M5 and M4 (which connect to the city centre by the M32), Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport.


Bristol is one of the UK's most popular tourist destinations. It was selected in 2009 as one of the world's top-ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults, was named the best city to live in Britain in 2014 by The Sunday Times, and won the EU's European Green Capital Award in 2015.


TOURISM

Located on the River Avon, Bristol is often referred to as the "Capital of the West Country" and the Britain's eighth largest city. Famous for its historic port, Bristol's former docklands and warehouses have been regenerated to provide a wonderful waterfront area of historic attractions, cafés and restaurants while shipping is now conducted seven miles downstream at the newer Royal Portbury Docks at Avonmouth.


Although badly damaged during World War II, this maritime city has some wonderful Georgian and Victorian architecture. Characterful merchants' houses and pubs dating back to the 1650s and the remains of the old city walls can be explored along King Street, which was named after Charles II.


Visitors will find an abundance of maritime history, street art, independent shops, engineering marvels such as the Clifton Suspension Bridge and a ready supply of museums, art galleries, theatres, parks, festivals and family attractions in this pleasant city.

After dark, Bristol's nightlife keeps the Harbourside humming to the beat of underground music and reggae in one of Britain's most musical cities.


- Areas to Explore: Bristol's Old Port, known as the Floating Harbour, is the main area for visitors. Restored wharves and warehouses house cafés, museums and attractions including the Lifeboat and Industrial Museum, the Maritime Museum and SS Great Britain.

The University District includes the City Art Gallery and Museum.


The steep-sided Avon Valley at Clifton is worth visiting to see the famous Clifton Suspension Bridge, the Observatory and Caves, or enjoy walks in nearby Leigh Woods.

The Historic District around King Street and Queen Square was laid out in 1680 and has many historic properties displaying various architectural styles.


- Things to Do: Self-guided walking tours along the Bristol Heritage Trail or the Slave Trade Trail are available for a nominal charge from the Tourist Information Centre at Harbourside. They provide a fun way to explore Bristol and learn about its fascinating history.

Historians and those with an interest in ships should not miss the SS Great Britain, built in Bristol by Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1843 and now preserved as a museum in the Great Western Dockyard. It was the first iron-hulled steam-driven passenger ship ever built and makes an interesting attraction.


Take a boat trip around the harbour and see the historic sights from the water – a wonderful perspective.

The Georgian House Museum on Great George Street is a fine example of an 18th century home built for plantation owner John Pinney in 1790. It provides a fascinating insight into life as a merchant and as a servant.


St Mary Redcliffe Church, built from local red sandstone, was visited by Elizabeth I in 1574 who declared it "the fairest parish church in England". This fine example of mediaeval ecclesiastical architecture is well worth visiting to see the black Purbeck marble columns, 1200 gold roof bosses, Chaotic Pendulum and the model of John Cabot's ship The Matthew. Look out for the whale bone above the north doorway which was presented to the church by John Cabot in thanksgiving for his safe return from his expedition to discover North America.


Bristol Cathedral stands on College Green and dates back to 1140 when it was founded as an Augustinian monastery. It has a Norman Chapter House, Abbey Gateway and some grotesque Gothic gargoyles decorating the extensive facade.

After walking across the world-famous Clifton Suspension Bridge, go down to river level and visit the Clifton Observatory and Giant's Cave. Housed in a former windmill, the Observatory includes England's only surviving Victorian "Camera Obscura". The nearby viewing platform has stunning views of the Avon Gorge.


HISTORY

Archaeological finds, including flint tools believed to be 60,000 years old made with the Levallois technique, indicate the presence of Neanderthals in the Shirehampton and St Annes areas of Bristol during the Middle Palaeolithic. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, and on Kings Weston Hill near Henbury. A Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills (connected to Bath by a Roman road); another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were also scattered throughout the area.


- Middle Ages: The town of Brycgstow (Old English "the place at the bridge") appears to have been founded by 1000; by about 1020, it was a trading centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name. By 1067 Brycgstow was a well-fortified burh, capable of resisting an invasion sent from Ireland by Harold Godwinson's sons. Under Norman rule, the town had one of the strongest castles in southern England.


The port began to develop in the 11th century around the confluence of the Rivers Frome and Avon, adjacent to the original Bristol Bridge and just outside the town walls. By the 12th century Bristol was an important port, handling much of England's trade with Ireland (including slaves). In 1247 a stone bridge was built, which was replaced by the current Bristol Bridge during the 1760s; the town incorporated neighbouring suburbs, becoming a county in 1373. During this period, Bristol became a shipbuilding and manufacturing centre. By the 14th century Bristol, York and Norwich were England's three largest medieval towns after London, but one-third to one-half the population died in the Black Death of 1348–49. This checked population growth, and Bristol's population remained between 10,000 and 12,000 for most of the 15th and 16th centuries.


- 15th century: During the 15th century Bristol was the second most important port in the country, trading with Ireland, Iceland and Gascony. It was the starting point for many voyages, including Robert Sturmy's (1457–58) unsuccessful attempt to break up the Italian monopoly of Eastern Mediterranean trade. Bristol merchants then turned west, launching voyages of exploration in the Atlantic by 1480 in search of the phantom island of Hy-Brazil. These Atlantic voyages, also aimed at China, culminated in Venetian John Cabot's 1497 exploration of North America and subsequent expeditions to the New World, underwritten by Bristol merchants and King Henry VII until 1508. A 1499 voyage, led by merchant William Weston of Bristol, was the first English-led expedition to North America.


- 16th century: During the 16th century, Bristol merchants concentrated on developing trade with Spain and its American colonies. This included the smuggling of prohibited goods, such as food and guns, to Iberia during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). Bristol's illicit trade grew enormously after 1558, becoming integral to its economy.

The Diocese of Bristol was founded in 1542, with the former Abbey of St. Augustine (founded by Robert Fitzharding in 1140) becoming Bristol Cathedral. Bristol also became a city and county that year. During the English Civil War in the 1640s the city was occupied by Royalists, who built the Royal Fort House on the site of an earlier Parliamentarian stronghold.


- 17th and 18th centuries: Renewed growth came with the rise of England's American colonies in the 17th century and the rapid 18th century expansion of England's role in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery to the Americas. Bristol and Liverpool became centres of the triangular trade. In the first side of the slavery triangle, manufactured goods were shipped to West Africa and exchanged for Africans; the enslaved captives were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas in the Middle Passage under brutal conditions. In the third side of the triangle, plantation goods such as sugar, tobacco, rum, rice, cotton and a small number of slaves (sold to the aristocracy as house servants) returned across the Atlantic. Some household slaves eventually purchased their freedom in England. At the height of the Bristol slave trade from 1700 to 1807, more than 2,000 slave ships carried a conservatively-estimated 500,000 people from Africa to slavery in the Americas. The Seven Stars public house, where abolitionist Thomas Clarkson collected information on the slave trade, is still operating.


Fishermen from Bristol (who had fished the Grand Banks of Newfoundland since the 15th century) began settling Newfoundland permanently in larger numbers during the 17th century, establishing colonies at Bristol's Hope and Cuper's Cove. Because of Bristol's nautical environment, maritime safety was an important issue in the city. During the 19th century, Samuel Plimsoll (known as "the sailor's friend") campaigned to make the seas safer; shocked by overloaded vessels, he successfully fought for a compulsory load line on ships.

In 1739 John Wesley founded the first Methodist chapel, the New Room, in Bristol.


- 19th century: The city was associated with Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London Paddington, two pioneering Bristol-built oceangoing steamships (the SS Great Britain and the SS Great Western), and the Clifton Suspension Bridge. The new railway replaced the Kennet and Avon Canal, which had fully opened in 1810, as the main route for the transport of goods between Bristol and London. Competition from Liverpool (beginning around 1760) and disruptions of maritime commerce due to war with France (1793) and the abolition of the slave trade (1807) contributed to Bristol's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of Northern England and the West Midlands. The tidal Avon Gorge, which had secured the port during the Middle Ages, had become a liability. An 1804–9 plan to improve the city's port with a floating harbour designed by William Jessop was a costly error, requiring high harbour fees. By 1867, ships were getting larger and the meanders in the river Avon prevented boats over 300 feet (91 m) from reaching the harbour resulting in the loss of trade. The port facilities were migrating downstream to Avonmouth and new industrial complexes were founded there. Some of the traditional industries including copper and brass manufacture went into decline, however the import and processing of tobacco flourished with the expansion of the W.D. & H.O. Wills business.


Bristol's population (66,000 in 1801), supported by new industry and growing commerce, quintupled during the 19th century. This resulted in the development of new suburbs such as Clifton and Cotham which provide examples of the developments from the Georgian to the Regency style, with many fine terraces and villas facing the road, and at right angles to it. In the early 19th century, the romantic medieval gothic style appeared, partially as a backlash to the symmetry of Palladianism, and can be seen in buildings such as Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, Royal West of England Academy, and The Victoria Rooms. Riots broke out in 1793 and 1831; the first protested against the renewal of tolls on Bristol Bridge, and the second against the rejection of the second Reform Bill by the House of Lords.


- 20th century: In 1901 Bristol's population was about 330,000, and the city grew steadily during the 20th century. Its docklands were enhanced during the early 1900s by the Royal Edward Dock. Another new dock, the Royal Portbury Dock, opened during the 1970s. With the advent of air travel, aircraft manufacturers built new factories in the city during the first half of the century.

Bristol's educational system was boosted in 1909 by the formation of the University of Bristol and again in 1925, when the university's main building opened. A polytechnic university opened in 1969, giving the city a second institute of higher education which became the University of the West of England in 1992.


Bristol was heavily damaged by Luftwaffe raids during World War II; about 1,300 people living or working in the city were killed and nearly 100,000 buildings were damaged, at least 3,000 beyond repair. The original central market area, near the bridge and castle, is now a park containing two bombed churches and fragments of the castle. A third bomb-damaged church nearby, St Nicholas, has been restored and is a museum housing a 1756 William Hogarth triptych painted for the high altar of St Mary Redcliffe. The museum also has statues of King Edward I (moved from Arno's Court Triumphal Arch), King Edward III (taken from Lawfords' Gate in the city walls when they were demolished about 1760) and 13th century statues of Robert (builder of Bristol Castle) and Geoffrey de Montbray (who built the city's walls) from Bristol's Newgate.


The rebuilding of Bristol city centre was characterised by 1960s and 1970s skyscrapers, mid-century modern architecture and road improvements. Since the 1980s some main roads were closed, the Georgian-era Queen Square and Portland Square were restored, the Broadmead shopping area regenerated and one of the city centre's tallest mid-century towers was demolished. Bristol's road infrastructure changed dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s with the development of the M4 and M5 motorways, which meet at the Almondsbury Interchange just north of the city and link Bristol with London (M4 eastbound), Swansea (M4 westbound across the Severn Estuary), Exeter (M5 southbound) and Birmingham (M5 northbound).


The 20th century relocation of the docks to Avonmouth Docks and Royal Portbury Dock, 7 miles (11 km) downstream from the city centre, has allowed the redevelopment of the old dock area (the Floating Harbour). Although the docks' existence was once in jeopardy (since the area was seen as a derelict industrial site), the inaugural 1996 International Festival of the Sea held in and around the docks affirmed the area as a leisure asset of the city.


GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

- Boundaries: Bristol's boundaries are defined in several ways, depending on whether they are those of the city, the developed area or Greater Bristol. The narrowest definition of the city is the city council boundary, which includes a large section of the western Severn Estuary up to (but not including) the islands of Steep Holm and Flat Holm. A slightly broader definition used by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) includes developed areas adjoining Bristol but outside the city-council boundary, such as Whitchurch village, Filton, Patchway and Bradley Stoke, excluding undeveloped areas within the city-council boundary. The ONS has defined a Bristol Urban Area, which includes Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Stoke Gifford, Winterbourne, Frampton Cotterell, Almondsbury and Easton in Gordano. The North Fringe of Bristol, a developed area in South Gloucestershire between the Bristol city boundary and the M4 and M5 motorways, was so named as part of a 1987 plan prepared by the Northavon District Council.


- Greater Bristol: Greater Bristol, used by the Government Office of the South West (now abolished), the Office for National Statistics and others, is the city and portions of the three neighbouring local authorities (Bath and North East Somerset, North Somerset and South Gloucestershire— an area sometimes called the "former Avon area" or the West of England Partnership (WEP) area, and jocularly as CUBA (the County which Used to Be Avon). Greater Bristol does not include Bath or Weston-super-Mare, which are included in the WEP area. The Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways (FOSBR) conflates the terms Greater Bristol and Suburban Bristol.


- Physical geography: Bristol is part of a limestone area running from the Mendip Hills in the south to the Cotswolds in the northeast. The rivers Avon and Frome cut through the limestone to the underlying clay, creating Bristol's characteristically hilly landscape. The Avon flows from Bath in the east, through flood plains and areas which were marshes before the city's growth. To the west the Avon cuts through the limestone to form the Avon Gorge, aided by glacial meltwater after the last ice age. The gorge, which helped protect Bristol Harbour, has been quarried for stone to build the city and its surrounding land has been protected from development as The Downs and Leigh Woods. The Avon estuary and the gorge are the county boundary with North Somerset, and the river flows into the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth. Another gorge, cut by the Hazel Brook (which flows into the River Trym), crosses the Blaise Castle estate in northern Bristol.


- Climate: Located in southern England, Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK with a mean annual temperature of approximately 10.5 °C (50.9 °F). It is among the sunniest, with 1,541–1,885 hours of sunshine per year. Although the city is partially sheltered by the Mendip Hills, it is exposed to the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel. Annual rainfall increases from north to south, with totals north of the Avon in the 600–900 mm (24–35 in) range and 900–1,200 mm (35–47 in) south of the river. Rain is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with autumn and winter the wetter seasons. The Atlantic Ocean influences Bristol's weather, keeping its average temperature above freezing throughout the year, but winter frosts are frequent and snow occasionally falls from early November to late April. Summers are warm and drier, with variable sunshine, rain and clouds, and spring weather is unsettled.


- Environment: Bristol was ranked as Britain's most-sustainable city (based on its environmental performance, quality of life, future-proofing and approaches to climate change, recycling and biodiversity), topping environmental charity Forum for the Future's 2008 Sustainable Cities Index. Local initiatives include Sustrans (creators of the National Cycle Network, founded as Cyclebag in 1977) and Resourcesaver, a non-profit business established in 1988 by Avon Friends of the Earth, and the city received the 2015 European Green Capital Award, becoming the first UK city to receive this award.


ECONOMY AND INDUSTRY

Bristol has a long history of trade, originally exporting wool cloth and importing fish, wine, grain and dairy products; later imports were tobacco, tropical fruits and plantation goods. Major imports are motor vehicles, grain, timber, produce and petroleum products. Since the 13th century, the rivers have been modified for docks; during the 1240s, the Frome was diverted into a deep, man-made channel (known as Saint Augustine's Reach) which flowed into the River Avon. Ships occasionally departed Bristol for Iceland as early as 1420, and speculation exists that sailors from Bristol made landfall in the Americas before Christopher Columbus or John Cabot. Beginning in the early 1480s, the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers sponsored exploration of the North Atlantic in search of trading opportunities. In 1552, Edward VI granted a royal charter to the Merchant Venturers to manage the port. By 1670 the city had 6,000 tons of shipping (of which half was imported tobacco), and by the late 17th and early 18th centuries shipping played a significant role in the slave trade. During the 18th century, Bristol was Britain's second-busiest port; business was conducted in the trading area around The Exchange in Corn Street over bronze tables known as Nails. Although the Nails are cited as originating the phrase "cash on the nail" (immediate payment), the phrase was probably in use before their installation.


The city's economy also relies on the aerospace, defence, media, information technology, financial services and tourism industries. The Ministry of Defence (MoD)'s Procurement Executive, later known as the Defence Procurement Agency and Defence Equipment and Support, moved to its headquarters at Abbey Wood, Filton in 1995. This organisation, with a staff of 7,000 to 8,000, procures and supports MoD equipment.


In 2004, Bristol's gross domestic product was £9.439 billion. Its per capita GDP was £23,962 ($47,738, €35,124), which was some 40% above the national average, the third highest of any English city (after London and Nottingham) and the fifth highest of any city in the United Kingdom (behind London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Belfast and Nottingham). Bristol's March 2007 unemployment rate was 4.8%, compared with four percent for South West England and the national average of 5.5%.


Although Bristol's economy no longer relies upon its port, which was moved to docks at Avonmouth during the 1870s and to the Royal Portbury Dock in 1977 as ship size increased, it is the largest importer of cars to the UK. Until 1991, the port was publicly owned; it is leased, with £330 million invested and its annual tonnage increasing from 3.9 million long tons (4 million tonnes) to 11.8 million (12 million). Tobacco importing and cigarette manufacturing have ceased, but the importation of wine and spirits continues.


The financial services sector employs 59,000 in the city, and 50 micro-electronics and silicon design companies employ about 5,000. In 1983, Hewlett-Packard opened its national research laboratory in Bristol. As the UK's seventh-most-popular destination for foreign tourists, the city has nine million visitors annually.


During the 20th century, Bristol's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at Filton by the Bristol Aeroplane Company and aircraft-engine manufacturing by Bristol Aero Engines (later Rolls-Royce) at Patchway. Bristol Aeroplane was known for their World War I Bristol Fighter and World War II Blenheim and Beaufighter planes. During the 1950s they were a major English manufacturer of civilian aircraft, known for the Freighter, Britannia and Brabazon. The company diversified into automobile manufacturing during the 1940s, producing hand-built, luxury Bristol Cars at their factory in Filton, and the Bristol Cars company was spun off in 1960. The city also gave its name to Bristol buses, which were manufactured in the city from 1908 to 1983: by Bristol Tramways until 1955, and from 1955 to 1983 by Bristol Commercial Vehicles.


Filton played a key role in the Anglo-French Concorde supersonic airliner project during the 1960s. The Bristol Aeroplane Company became part of the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC); Concorde components were manufactured in British and French factories and shipped to final-assembly plants in Toulouse and Filton. The French manufactured the centre fuselage and centre wing, and the British manufactured the nose, rear fuselage, fin and wingtips; manufacture of its Olympus 593 engine was divided between Rolls-Royce (Filton) and Snecma (Paris). The British Concorde prototype made its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, five weeks after the French test flight. In 2003 British Airways and Air France decided to discontinue Concorde flights, retiring the aircraft to locations (primarily museums) worldwide. On 26 November 2003 Concorde 216 made the final Concorde flight, returning to Bristol Filton Airport as the centrepiece of a proposed air museum which is planned to include the existing Bristol Aero collection (including a Bristol Britannia).


The aerospace industry remains a major sector of the local economy. Major aerospace companies in Bristol include BAE Systems, a merger of Marconi Electronic Systems and BAe (the latter a merger of BAC, Hawker Siddeley and Scottish Aviation). Airbus and Rolls-Royce are also based at Filton, and aerospace engineering is an area of research at the University of the West of England. Another aviation company in the city is Cameron Balloons, who manufacture hot air balloons; each August the city hosts the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, one of Europe's largest hot-air balloon festivals.


In 2005, Bristol was named by the UK government one of England's six science cities. A £500 million shopping centre, Cabot Circus, opened in 2008 amidst predictions by developers and politicians that the city would become one of England's top ten retail destinations. The Bristol Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone, focused on creative, high-tech and low-carbon industries around Bristol Temple Meads railway station, was announced in 2011 and launched the following year. The 70-hectare (170-acre) Urban Enterprise Zone has streamlined planning procedures and reduced business rates. Rates generated by the zone are channelled to five other designated enterprise areas in the region: Avonmouth, Bath, Bristol and Bath Science Park in Emersons Green, Filton and Weston-super-Mare.


ARCHITECTURE

Bristol has 51 Grade I listed buildings, 500 Grade II and over 3,800 Grade II buildings in a variety of architectural styles, from medieval to modern. During the mid-19th century Bristol Byzantine, a style unique to the city, was developed and several examples have survived. Buildings from most architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen in the city. Surviving elements of the fortifications and castle date to the medieval period, and the Church of St James dates back to the 12th century.


The oldest Grade I listed buildings in Bristol are religious. St James' Priory was founded in 1129 as a Benedictine priory by Robert, Earl of Gloucester, the illegitimate son of Henry I. The second oldest is Bristol Cathedral and its associated Great Gatehouse. Founded in 1140, the church became the seat of the bishop and cathedral of the new Diocese of Bristol in 1542. Most of the medieval stonework, particularly the Elder Lady Chapel, is made from limestone taken from quarries around Dundry and Felton with Bath stone being used in other areas. Amongst the other churches included in the list is the 12th century St Mary Redcliffe which is the tallest building in Bristol. The church was described by Queen Elizabeth I as "the fairest, goodliest, and most famous parish church in England."


Secular buildings include The Red Lodge which was built in 1580 for John Yonge as a lodge for a larger house, which once stood on the site of the present Colston Hall. It was subsequently added to in Georgian times and restored in the early 20th century. St Bartholomew's Hospital is a 12th-century town house which was incorporated into a monastery hospital founded in 1240 by Sir John la Warr, 2nd Baron De La Warr (c. 1277–1347), and became Bristol Grammar School from 1532 to 1767, and then Queen Elizabeth's Hospital 1767-1847. Three 17th-century town houses were then incorporated into model workers' flats of 1865, and converted to offices in 1978. The round piers predate the hospital, and may come from an aisled hall, the earliest remains of domestic architecture in the city, which was then adapted to form the hospital chapel. St Nicholas's Almshouses were built in 1652 to provide care for the poor. Several public houses were also built in this period, including the Llandoger Trow on King Street and the Hatchet Inn.


Manor houses include Goldney Hall where the highly decorated Grotto dates from 1739. Commercial buildings such as the paired Exchange and Old Post Office from the 1740s are also included in the list. Residential buildings in the Georgian Portland Square and the complex of small cottages around a green at Blaise Hamlet, which was built around 1811 for retired employees of Quaker banker and philanthropist John Scandrett Harford, who owned Blaise Castle House. The 18th century Kings Weston House, in northern Bristol, was designed by John Vanbrugh and is the only Vanbrugh building in any UK city outside London. Almshouses and pubs from the same period intermingle with modern development. Several Georgian squares were designed for the middle class as prosperity increased during the 18th century. During World War II, the city centre was heavily bombed during the Bristol Blitz. The central shopping area near Wine Street and Castle Street was particularly hard-hit, and the Dutch House and St Peter's Hospital were destroyed. However, in 1961 John Betjeman called Bristol "the most beautiful, interesting and distinguished city in England".


CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE

The Clifton Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge, which opened in 1864, spanning the Avon Gorge and the River Avon, linking Clifton in Bristol to Leigh Woods in North Somerset, England. Since opening it has been a toll bridge. The income from the tolls continues to provide funds for its maintenance. The bridge is built to a design by William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw, based on an earlier design by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It is a grade I listed building and forms part of the B3129 road.


The idea of building a bridge across the Avon Gorge originated in 1753. Original plans were for a stone bridge and later iterations were for a wrought iron structure. In 1831, an attempt to build Brunel's design was halted by the Bristol riots, and the revised version of his designs was built after his death and completed in 1864. Although similar in size, the bridge towers are not identical in design, the Clifton tower having side cut-outs, the Leigh tower more pointed arches atop a 110-foot (34 m) red sandstone-clad abutment. Roller-mounted "saddles" at the top of each tower allow movement of the three independent wrought iron chains on each side when loads pass over the bridge. The bridge deck is suspended by 162 vertical wrought-iron rods in 81 matching pairs.


Two men were killed during the bridge's construction; since opening it has gained a reputation as a suicide bridge. It has plaques that advertise the telephone number of The Samaritans and above the railings on the bridge there are anti-climb barriers. The Clifton Bridge Company initially managed the bridge under licence from a charitable trust. The trust subsequently purchased the company shares, completing this in 1949 and took over the running of the bridge using the income from tolls to pay for maintenance. The bridge is a distinctive landmark, used as a symbol of Bristol on postcards, promotional materials, and informational web sites. It was also used as a backdrop to several films and television advertising and programmes. It has also been the venue for significant cultural events such as the first modern bungee jump in 1979, the last ever Concorde flight in 2003 and a handover of the Olympic Torch relay in 2012.

Fareham Wine Cellar - Urbina Wine Sellers in Hampshire

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FAREHAM WINE CELLAR (PEAKE WINE ASSOCIATES)

Fareham Wine Cellar is an independent Fine Wine Merchant founded in 1991, active as a retailer, wholesaler and importer of wines and spirits to clients throughout the UK. Over 20 years they have earned a reputation for outstanding quality, good value for money, quirky, different wines and excellent customer service. As an independent wine merchant they can provide a service that is unmatched by supermarkets, cash and carries and other wine merchants.


- Location: They are based in the market town of Fareham in Hampshire (located just a few minutes from the M27 between Portsmouth and Southampton). Their shop is situated in the historic High Street where one can find flavorous wines, and a large selection of spirits, on display. Their offices are based above the retail shop.


- History: After many years of purely supplying restaurants, hotels and other wine merchants, they move to Fareham to develop their own retail business as well. Their aim at The Fareham Wine Cellar is to offer an unrivalled wine merchant service to those who want to discover more about wine.


- Staff: The professional and knowledgeable staff members have accumulated over 80 years of experience in the wine trade and they are able to offer a truly knowledgeable and professional service and information on: Wine and food matching; Suggestions for anniversary; Christening or wedding presents; and any general wine inquiries.


With passion and enthusiasm, they continually monitor the developments in the wine trade in a never-ceasing effort to provide superb wines at all levels from inexpensive, everyday wines all the way to iconic and desirable wines.


The Fareham Wine Cellar team also holds wine tastings and wine dinners throughout the year, occasionally hosted by visiting wine makers. For details of events and offers, you can subscribe to their regular newsletter, available by clicking on the link on any page of their website.


. Dominic Lockyer: Is the manager of The Fareham Wine Cellar and the first friendly face we will see at the shop, he also looks after the retail website, related information technology, and writes a blog which is highly recommended to read about the drinks industry.


. Roy Gillingham: As a fine independent wine shop they have people who know more than just a little standing behind the counter, which often will mean the owner.


- Products: They stock a wine range of wines including Claret, Burgundy, Rhone, Champagne and many other French wines. There are also wines from Spain, Italy, Portugal and Germany. The New World is well-represented and they have a large selection of wines from Australia, New Zealand, North and particularly from South America.


They specialise in Port Wines, particularly Vintage and Colheita Port, currently as far back as 1961, and vintage Armagnacs from most years of the 20th century one can find the ideal present for a special anniversary or birthday.


You can search their list by year if you are looking for a present for a special birthday or anniversary present. There are various Ports, Cognacs, Armagnacs and Scotch Whiskies, as well as wines, from various vintages and have a good selection of Sherry and Madeira.


They are also the UK agents for Le Bonheur, Alto Estate, Jacobsdal Estate and Theuniskraal which are all part of the Distell group from South Africa.


- Ordering: They sell online or you can place a telephone orders on 01329 822733 or fax on 01329 282355. They have a printable PDF order form on each page that can be downloaded and faxed back to them. They accept payment by Maestro, Visa, Mastercard and Cheque. They use the APC Overnight delivery service for their deliveries (other services are available for larger quantities).


There is no minimum order, they can send out single bottle orders. Cases of wine can be mixed to order and attract a 5% discount from their list price (the discount applies to orders of 12 bottles or more excluding spirits). Prices are in Pounds Sterling, UK VAT inclusive.


For those important christening, wedding and anniversary presents, we can despatch for next day delivery from Fareham. Large corporate orders would be sent from our bonded warehouse in Weybridge, with delivery to London on a next-day service and most of the rest of the UK on a 48-hour service.


- Name: Fareham Wine Cellar
- Address: 55 High Street, Fareham, Hampshire, PO16 7BG United Kingdom.
- Contact: Dominic Lockyer
- Company Size: 1-10 employees
- Industry: Wine and Spirits


- Telephone: 01329 822733
- Mob: 07836 388020
- Fax: 01329 282355 - Please do not phone this number.
- E-mail: Dominic@FarehamWineCellar.co.uk
- Web: www.farehamwinecellar.co.uk


WINEMAKER´S DINNER WITH PEDRO URBINA

Winemaker’s dinner at Lysses House Hotel. A splendid example of Georgian architecture, Lysses House has been restored as a comfortable, bright and welcoming hotel and restaurant. The beautiful building and gardens make the ideal venue for celebrations and the perfect setting for photographs, both indoors and out.


In the Richmond Restaurant we can find the dining room full of diners sitting at beautifully laid tables covered with snowy white cloths, mitred napkins and fresh flowers.


Head Chef Director Clive Wright places great emphasis on sourcing good ingredients and this is reflected in his well-balanced menu.


- The starters of cod and chorizo on a bed of spinach with a red wine and cream sauce were a brilliant match for the Urbina Garnacha, the sweet meatiness of the chorizo and the spicy, vibrant, red fruit were a perfect match.


Urbina Garnacha 2013: Striking cherry red colour. On the nose primary aromas of red berry fruit, strawberry, raspberry and flowers. On the palate summer fruit flavours broadening out on the palate giving weight with soft tannins leaving a refreshing aftertaste.


- The main course was some fantastic and tasty Welsh lamb with a Spanish infused butter bean, pepper and courgette stew which worked really well with the Urbina Seleccion 1999.


Urbina 1999 Selección: Intense, dark ruby red colour. Very concentrated nose of berries, damsons, and figs. On the palate, full-bodied, rich fruit cake and savoury vanilla flavours, well-structured, mellow, firm tannins with the fine elegance of the Urbina marque. £14.35


- There was also a small selection of Spanish Cheeses including Manchego, with the Urbina Gran Reserva 1996, the smokiness of the cheese and the dried fruit and vanilla character just seem to complement each other really well.


Urbina 1996 Gran Reserva: Colour reddish garnet. On the nose, powerful, complex and elegant. Rich vegetable and tobacco aromas, a perfect harmony of oak and glorious fruit. On the palate, intense rich fruit, prunes, dates and sweet raisin flavours, silky and creamy. A wine with great finesse and velvet smoothness, wondrous length and full finish. £18.99


- Coffee with buttery biscuits and homemade petit fours really completed the meal. We left more than satisfied and extremely impressed with the Urbina Wines, the food and the attentive, polite and efficient service we received.


BODEGAS URBINA IN RIOJA

- Style: Bodegas Urbina is one of the main guardians of traditional Rioja and is loyal to the classic profile of its wines. This does not mean it has avoided change or innovation (viticulture, vilification, and aging have all been updated through the years), but the basic remain the same, and their identity is scrupulously protected, a philosophy that sometimes means returning to old practices.


The Urbina family is a firm believer in the idea that wine is made in the vineyard. The main focus is on the terroir, since they aim to produce wines that express the former’s characteristics of the place were they come from. Wine should be a liquid expression of a particular place. They take pride in the fact that their style of wine derives from three factors: The vineyard’s terroir with fantastic weather, the right choice of grapes, and the winemaker’s intentions.


From the very beginning, the wines have a unique profile. They’re fresh, clean, very aromatic, and with silky tannins in their youth. But they also have an amazing aging capacity that produces complex, exiting and impressive red wines.


- Location: They are located in the North West part of Rioja Alta, considered by many to be the greatest area for wine growing and potential for wines of aging capacity. The facilities are located in Cuzcurrita del Río Tirón, in a very beautiful medieval town.


- Pedro Urbina: The winery is so linked to Pedro Benito Urbina that the two names are almost synonymous. Pedro Benito Urbina was born into a grape-growing family in Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón. After completing his studies in agriculture and oenology in Madrid and France, he returned to the cosechero family winery and he started making wine from his family vineyards, getting ready to take over from his father and grandfather, who were excellent vine growers.


In the meantime, he had restructured the family vineyards, locating and buying small plots in Cuzcurrita de Rio Tiron and nearby villages, all within 5km (3miles), with mostly old vines (between 45 and 100 years old) on slopes between 400 and 600m (1,300 - 2,000ft) above sea level.


In total, he owns 70 ha (173 acres). Most of these are planted to Tempranillo reflecting his meticulous viticulture, head-pruned or gobelet-trained, and mostly massal selections of old genotypes, that produces low yields, concentration, finess and high cuality grapes.


The objective at this bodega has always been produce great wines. To that end, Pedro does a green-harvest, leaf-plucking, crop-thinning, and a selected manual harvest. He is always looking for the right maturity (as opposed to unripe grapes or over maturity). In the winery, he uses destemming for most lots, fermentation in stainless steel vats, with as little sulphur dioxide as possible and gentle pruning-over. The wine is transferred to new and old, medium toasted American (Martin Cooperage) and French (Radoux Cooperage) oak barrels. The wines are age for 12 o 24 months, depending on the wine and vintage and with racking always taking place on the waning moon, and some of them are bottle without fining or filtration.


- History: The first bodega was constructed in the traditional manner; it had a long tunnel excavated into the hill for storing barrels of maturing wine and, historically, other produce that needed to be kept cool. Caves like this which were built between the 12th and 16th centuries in Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón, were quite common elsewhere in Spain, mostly in regions such as Rioja. And as well as their principal role as stores for wine and food, they also served as meeting places for eating and drinking with friends.


Later on in 1975, Pedro vinified his following vintages in a small garage in Cuzcurrita using concrete vats, before building the new winery in 1986 using stainless still for fermentation purposes.
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